Routledge History of Philosophy Volume IX Philosophy of Science%2CLogic and Mathematics in the Twen

Routledge History of Philosophy Volume IX Philosophy of Science%2CLogic and Mathematics in the Twen

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Routledge History of Philosophy
Volume IX
Volume IX of the Routledge History of Philosophy surveys ten key topics in
the philosophy of science, logic and mathematics in the twentieth century.
Each of the essays is written by one of the world’s leading experts in that
field. The papers provide a comprehensive introduction to the subject in
question, and are written in a way that is accessible to philosophy
undergraduates and to those outside of philosophy who are interested in
these subjects. Each chapter contains an extensive bibliography of the
major writings in the field.
Among the topics covered are the philosophy of logic, of mathematics
and of Gottlob Frege; Ludwig Wittgenstein’s Tractatus; a survey of logical
positivism; the philosophy of physics and of science; probability theory,
cybernetics and an essay on the mechanist/vitalist debates.
In addition to these papers, the volume contains a helpful chronology
to the major scientific and philosophical events in the twentieth century. It
also provides an extensive glossary of technical terms in the philosophy of
science, logic and mathematics, and brief biographical notes on major
figures in these fields.
Stuart G.Shanker is Professor of Philosophy and of Psychology at York
University, Canada. He has published widely on the philosophy of
Ludwig Wittgenstein and artificial intelligence.

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Routledge History of Philosophy
General Editors—G.H.R.Parkinson
and S.G.Shanker
The Routledge History of Philosophy provides a chronological survey of the
history of western philosophy, from its beginnings in the sixth century BC
to the present time. It discusses all major philosophical developments in
depth. Most space is allocated to those individuals who, by common
consent, are regarded as great philosophers. But lesser figures have not
been neglected, and together the ten volumes of the History include basic
and critical information about every significant philosopher of the past
and present. These philosophers are clearly situated within the cultural
and, in particular, the scientific context of their time.
The History is intended not only for the specialist, but also for the
student and the general reader. Each chapter is by an acknowledged
authority in the field. The chapters are written in an accessible style and a
glossary of technical terms is provided in each volume.
I From the Beginning to Plato
C.C.W.Taylor
VII The Nineteenth Century
C.L.Ten (published 1994)
II Hellenistic and Early Medieval
Philosophy
David Furley
III Medieval Philosophy
John Marenbon
IV The Renaissance and C17
Rationalism
G.H.R.Parkinson (published
1993)
V British Philosophy and the Age of
Enlightenment
Stuart Brown
VIII Continental Philosophy in the
C20
Richard Kearney (published
I993)
IX Philosophy of Science, Logic and
Mathematics in the C20
S.G.Shanker
X Philosophy of Meaning,
Knowledge and Value in the C20
John Canfield
VI The Age of German Idealism
Robert Solomon and Kathleen
Higgins (published 1993)
Each volume contains 10–15 chapters by different contributors

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Routledge History of Philosophy
Volume IX
Philosophy of Science,
Logic and Mathematics
in the Twentieth
Century
EDITED BY
Stuart G.Shanker
London and New York

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First published 1996
by Routledge
11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2004.
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001
selection and editorial matter © 1996 Stuart G.Shanker
individual chapters © 1996 the contributors
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Philosophy of science, logic, and mathematics in the 20th century/edited by
Stuart G.Shanker.
p. cm.—(Routledge history of philosophy; v. 9)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Science—Philosophy—History—20th century. 2. Logic-History—20th
century. 3. Mathematics—Philosophy—History—20th century.
4. Philosophy, British—History—20th century. 5. Philosophy and
science—History—20th century, I. Shanker, Stuart. II. Series.
Q174.8.p55 1996
501–dc20
96–10545
CIP
ISBN 0-203-02947-X Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 0-203-05980-8 (Adobe eReader Format)
ISBN 0-415-05776-0 (Print Edition)

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Contents
General editors’ preface
vii
Notes on contributors
x
Acknowledgements
xiii
Chronology
xv
Introduction
Stuart Shanker
1
1 Philosophy of logic
A.D.Irvine
9
2 Philosophy of mathematics in the twentieth century
Michael Detlefsen
50
3 Frege
Rainer Born
124
4 Wittgenstein’s Tractatus
James Bogen
157
5 Logical positivism
Oswald Hanfling
193
6 The philosophy of physics
Rom Harré
214
7 The philosophy of science today
Joseph Agassi
235
8 Chance, cause and conduct: probability theory and the
explanation of human action
Jeff Coulter
266
9 Cybernetics
K.M.Sayre
292
v

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CONTENTS
10 Descartes’ legacy: the mechanist/vitalist debates
Stuart Shanker
315
Glossary
376
Index
444
vi

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General editors’ preface
The history of philosophy, as its name implies, represents a union of two
very different disciplines, each of which imposes severe constraints
upon the other. As an exercise in the history of ideas, it demands that
one acquire a ‘period eye’: a thorough understanding of how the
thinkers whom it studies viewed the problems which they sought to
resolve, the conceptual frameworks in which they addressed these
issues, their assumptions and objectives, their blind spots and miscues.
But as an exercise in philosophy, we are engaged in much more than
simply a descriptive task. There is a crucial, critical aspect to our efforts:
we are looking for the cogency as much as the development of an
argument, for its bearing on questions which continue to preoccupy us
as much as the impact which it may have had on the evolution of
philosophical thought.
The history of philosophy thus requires a delicate balancing act from
its practitioners. We read these writings with the full benefit of historical
hindsight. We can see why the minor contributions remained minor and
where the grand systems broke down: sometimes as a result of internal
pressures, sometimes because of a failure to overcome an insuperable
obstacle, sometimes because of a dramatic technological or sociological
change, and, quite often, because of nothing more than a shift in
intellectual fashion or interests. Yet, because of our continuing
philosophical concern with many of the same problems, we cannot
afford to look dispassionately at these works. We want to know what
lessons are to be learned from the inconsequential or the glorious
failures; many times we want to plead for a contemporary relevance in
the overlooked theory or to consider whether the ‘glorious failure’ was
indeed such or simply ahead of its time: perhaps even ahead of its
author.
We find ourselves, therefore, much like the mythical ‘radical
translator’ who has so fascinated modern philosophers, trying to
understand an author’s ideas in their and their culture’s eyes, and, at the
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GENERAL EDITORS’ PREFACE
same time, in our own. It can be a formidable task. Many times we fail in
the historical undertaking because our philosophical interests are so
strong, or lose sight of the latter because we are so enthralled by the
former. But the nature of philosophy is such that we are compelled to
master both techniques. For learning about the history of philosophy is
not just a challenging and engaging pastime: it is an essential element in
learning about the nature of philosophy—in grasping how philosophy is
intimately connected with and yet distinct from both history and
science.
The Routledge History of Philosophy provides a chronological survey of
the history of western philosophy, from its beginnings up to the present
time. Its aim is to discuss all major philosophical developments in depth,
and, with this in mind, most space has been allocated to those
individuals who, by common consent, are regarded as great
philosophers. But lesser figures have not been neglected, and it is hoped
that the reader will be able to find, in the ten volumes of the History, at
least basic information about any significant philosopher of the past or
present.
Philosophical thinking does not occur in isolation from other human
activities, and this History tries to situate philosophers within the cultural,
and in particular the scientific, context of their time. Some philosophers,
indeed, would regard philosophy as merely ancillary to the natural
sciences; but even if this view is rejected, it can hardly be denied that the
sciences have had a great influence on what is now regarded as
philosophy, and it is important that this influence should be set forth
clearly. Not that these volumes are intended to provide a mere record of
the factors that influenced philosophical thinking; philosophy is a
discipline with its own standards of argument, and the presentation of the
ways in which these arguments have developed is the main concern of
this History.
In speaking of ‘what is now regarded as philosophy’, we may have
given the impression that there now exists a single view of what
philosophy is. This is certainly not the case; on the contrary, there exist
serious differences of opinion, among those who call themselves
philosophers, about the nature of their subject. These differences are
reflected in the existence at the present time of two main schools of
thought, usually described as ‘analytic’ and ‘continental’ philosophy
respectively. It is not our intention, as general editors of this History, to
take sides in this dispute. Our attitude is one of tolerance, and our hope is
that these volumes will contribute to an understanding of how
philosophers have reached the positions which they now occupy.
One final comment. Philosophy has long been a highly technical
subject, with its own specialized vocabulary. This History is intended not
only for the specialist but also for the general reader. To this end, we have
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GENERAL EDITORS’ PREFACE
tried to ensure that each chapter is written in an accessible style; and since
technicalities are unavoidable, a glossary of technical terms is provided in
each volume. In this way these volumes will, we hope, contribute to a
wider understanding of a subject which is of the highest importance to all
thinking people.
G.H.R.Parkinson
S.G.Shanker
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Notes on contributors
Joseph Agassi is Professor of Philosophy at Tel-Aviv University and
York University, Toronto (joint appointment); M.Sc. in physics from
Jerusalem; Ph.D. in general science: logic and scientific method from
London (The London School of Economics). Among his major
publications in English are: Towards an Historiography of Science, History
and Theory, The Continuing Revolution: A History of Physics From The Greeks
to Einstein, Faraday as a Natural Philosopher, Towards a Rational Philosophical
Anthropology, Science and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Science,
Technology: Philosophical and Social Aspects, Introduction to Philosophy: The
Siblinghood of Humanity and A Philosopher’s Apprentice: In Karl Popper’s
Workshop.
James Bogen is Professor of Philosophy at Pitzer College, Claremont,
California. His publications on Wittgenstein include Wittgenstein’s
Philosophy of Language, ‘Wittgenstein and Skepticism’ and a critical notice
of Bradley’s Nature of all Being. Having published in several areas,
including epistemology, philosophy of science and ancient Greek
philosophy, he is now working on a project in the history of nineteenth-
century neuroscience.
Rainer Born was born in 1943 in Central Europe. He was educated as a
teacher and studied (in Austria, Germany and England) philosophy,
mathematics, physics, psychology and pedagogics, leading to degrees in
‘philosophy and mathematics’, habilitation (venia docendi) for ‘Theory
and philosophy of science’. He is currently an Associate Professor at the
Institute for Philosophy and Philosophy of Science at the Johannes
Kepler University, Linz, Austria.
Jeff Coulter is Professor of Sociology and Associate Faculty Member of
Philosophy at Boston University. Among his publications are The Social
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NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
Construction of Mind (1979), Rethinking Cognitive Theory (1983), Mind In
Action (1989) and (with G.Button, J.Lee and W. Sharrock) Computers,
Minds, and Conduct (1995).
Michael Detlefsen is Professor of Philosophy at the University of Notre
Dame and editor-in-chief of the Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic. He is
author of Hilbert’s Program and of various papers in the philosophy of
mathematics and logic. Presently, he is working on two books: one on
constructivism in the foundations of mathematics and the other on
Gödel’s Theorems.
Oswald Hanfling is Professor of Philosophy at The Open University. He
is author of Logical Positivism, Wittgenstein’s Later Philosophy, The Quest for
Meaning and Philosophy and Ordinary Language (nearing completion). He
is also editor and part author of Philosophical Aesthetics: An Introduction as
well as various Open University texts.
Rom Harré is a Fellow of Linacre College, Oxford, and the University
Lecturer in the Philosophy of Science. He is also Professor of Psychology
at Georgetown University, Washington DC, and Adjunct Professor of
Philosophy at Binghamton University. He is the author of such books as
Varieties of Realism, Social Being, Personal Being, Laws of Nature, and with
Grant Gillett The Discursive Mind. He is also the editor, with Roger Lamb,
of the Blackwell Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology.
Andrew Irvine is an Associate Professor of Philosophy at the University
of British Columbia. He is the editor of Physicalism in Mathematics
(Kluwer, 1990) and co-editor of Russell and Analytic Philosophy
(University of Toronto, 1993).
Kenneth M.Sayre received his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1958,
and has since been at the University of Notre Dame where currently he
is Professor of Philosophy. He is the author of several books,
monographs and articles on the topics of cybernetics and the philosophy
of mind, including Consciousness: A Philosophic Study of Minds and
Machines, Cybernetics and the Philosophy of Mind and Intentionality and
Information Processing: An Alternative Model for Cognitive Science. He
contributed the article on Information Theory in Routledge’s new
Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Stuart Shanker is Professor of Philosophy and Psychology at Atkinson
College, York University. He is author of Wittgenstein and the Turning
Point in the Philosophy of Mathematics and editor of Ludwig Wittgenstein:
Critical Assessments and Gödel’s Theorem in Focus. He will shortly be
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NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
publishing Wittgenstein and the Foundations of AI, and with E.S.Savage-
Rumbaugh and Talbot J.Taylor, Apes, Language and the Human Mind:
Essays in Philosophical Primatology.
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Acknowledgements
I am deeply indebted to my co-general editor, G.H.R.Parkinson, for all the
help he has given me in preparing this volume, and Richard Stoneman,
who has been an invaluable source of advice in the planning of this
History. I would also like to thank Richard Dancy, who prepared the
chronology for this volume, and Dale Lindskog and Darlene Rigo, who
prepared the glossary. Finally, I would like to thank the Canada Council,
which supported this project with a Standard Research Grant; Atkinson
College, which supported this project with two research grants; and York
University, which awarded me the Walter L.Gordon Fellowship.
Stuart G.Shanker
Atkinson College, York University
Toronto, Canada
xiii

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Chronology
The following sources have been consulted for much of the material on
science and technology: Alexander Hellemans (ed.) The Timetables of
Science (New York, Simon and Schuster, 1987); Bruce Wetterau, The New
York Public Library Book of Chronologies (New York, Prentice Hall, 1990).
xv

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Introduction
S.G.Shanker
In this volume we survey the striking developments that have taken place
in the philosophies of logic, mathematics and science in the twentieth
century. The very use of a genitive case here bears eloquent testimony to
the dramatic changes that have occurred. Prior to this century, few
philosophers troubled to break ‘philosophy’ down into its constituent
parts. Nor did they display any pronounced interest in the nature of
philosophy per se, or the relation in which philosophy stands to science.
Indeed, subjects that we now regard as totally distinct from philosophy—
such as mathematics or psychology, and even physics or biology—were
once all located within the auspices of philosophy.
It is interesting to note, for example, how Hilbert obtained his doctorate
from the philosophy department. Now we are much more careful to
distinguish between axiomatics, proof theory, categorization theory, the
foundations of mathematics, mathematical logic, formal logic, and the
philosophy of mathematics. That hardly means that philosophers are only
active in the latter areas, however, while mathematicians get to rule over
the former. Rather, philosophers and mathematicians move about freely
in all these fields. To be sure, it is always possible to distinguish between
the work of a mathematician and that of a philosopher: the approach, the
techniques, and most especially the intentions and the conclusions drawn,
invariably betray the author’s occupation. But the fact that philosophers
and mathematicians are working side-by-side, that they are reading each
other’s work and attending each other’s conferences, is an intellectual
development whose significance has yet to be fully absorbed.
Significantly, the major figures in the philosophies of logic and
mathematics this century—Frege, Russell, Wittgenstein, Brouwer,
Poincaré, Hilbert, Gödel, Tarski, Carnap, Quine—all moved from logic or
mathematics to philosophy. Perhaps more than any single factor, it was
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PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE, LOGIC AND MATHEMATICS
this dynamic that determined the nature of analytical philosophy. For it
resulted not only in the importation of formal tools but also in the
preoccupation with ‘logical analysis’, in the search for ‘regimentation’ and
the preoccupation with the construction of ‘formal models’ of language.
Increasingly, an undergraduate education in philosophy began not with
the writings of Plato and Aristotle but with the propositional and
predicate calculus. Where students were once exposed to the subtle
nuances in the concept of truth, they were now trained in the art of
axiomatizing the concept of truth. Symposia and dialogues were
supplanted by truth tables and the turgid prose of late nineteenth-century
German scientific writing.
Perhaps the most noticeable effect of this overwhelming logical and
mathematical presence is that philosophical arguments began to be
conducted at a very high level of technical sophistication. Those who
came to these issues straight from philosophy found themselves forced to
master the intricacies of formal or mathematical logic if they wished to
participate in the debates. But for all the changes taking place, the
underlying philosophical problems remained remarkably constant.
Questions such as ‘What is the nature of truth?’, ‘What is the nature of
proof?’, ‘What is the nature of concepts?’, ‘What is the nature of
inference?’, or even that much-vaunted issue of analytic philosophy,
‘What is the nature of meaning?’, have all long been the loci of
philosophical interest. Thus, it is not surprising that over the past few
years there has been a remarkable surge in historical studies, all motivated
by the goal of establishing the relevance of some classical figure or
argument for contemporary thought—as Professor Parkinson and I point
out in our general introduction to this History.
Still, it would be imprudent to conclude from the perennial nature of its
problems that philosophy has not in fact changed in some fundamental
way this century. It is not so much the pervasive influence of formal and
formalist thought (which may in fact already be starting to wane),
however, as the relation in which philosophy now stands to science. This
issue has been a pre-eminent concern throughout this century: indeed, in
some ways, it has been a defining issue for the aspiring philosopher of
logic, mathematics, or science.
The two main rival positions have been the Russellian and the
Wittgensteinian: scientism, and what has been dubbed (by its critics at any
rate) ordinary language philosophy. According to Russell, philosophy
should ‘seek to base itself upon science’: it should ‘study the methods of
science, and seek to apply these methods, with the necessary adaptations,
to its own peculiar province’.1 There are two basic aspects of scientism as
conceived by Russell. First, there is no intrinsic difference between
philosophy and science: each is engaged in the pursuit of knowledge
(albeit at different levels of generality); each constructs theories and
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INTRODUCTION
generates hypotheses. Second, philosophy plays a heuristic role in the
evolution of science. As Russell saw it,
To a great extent, the uncertainty of philosophy is more apparent
than real: those questions which are already capable of definite
answers are placed in the sciences, while those only to which, at
present, no definite answer can be given, remain to form the
residue which is called philosophy.2
On this picture, the realm of philosophy is constantly being eroded. The
more effective philosophers are, the more imminent becomes their
demise. For their success entails the active engagement of scientists,
rigorously testing and revising the theories that originated in a priori
reasoning.
The appeal of Russell’s argument stemmed largely from the fact that he
had history on his side. The pattern was set in the mechanist/ vitalist
debates: in the removal of first the animal heat debate and then the reflex
theory debate from the province of philosophy and their resolution in
physiology. It was natural for scientistic philosophers to assume that
Turing’s mechanical version of Church’s thesis had set the stage for yet
another major step in this process: i.e. the transference of the mind from
philosophy’s jurisdiction to that of cognitive science. The sentiment began
to surface that one could no longer regard philosophy as the driving force
behind logical, mathematic and scientific progress. Rather, the feeling was
that the ‘Queen of the Sciences’ had been reduced to the role of
handmaiden, initiating perhaps but in no way governing the great
advances taking place in logic, mathematics and science. To borrow a term
from contemporary concept theory, the fate of philosophy in the twentieth
century began to be characterized as the descent from superordinate, to
basic-level, to subordinate status.
On the face of it, this argument is rather curious. After all, it takes as its
paradigm the displacement of natural philosophy by physics. But the
philosophical debates that have been inspired by physics in the twentieth
century are amongst the most profound and spirited that philosophy has
ever enjoyed. Disputes over the nature of matter and time, the origin of
the universe, the nature of experiment, evidence, explanation, laws and
theory, the relation of physics to the other sciences: these are but a few of
the issues which have been hotly debated this century, and which will
continue to stimulate intense debate. And these pale in comparison to the
controversies sparked off by Turing’s thesis.
If anything, interest in philosophy has grown throughout this century,
as is manifest by the rapid growth of philosophy faculties in every liberal
arts programme. Like the relation of the Canadian economy to the
American, the more science has advanced, the more philosophy has
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grown. New scientific breakthroughs—indeed, new sciences—seem to
create in their wake a host of new philosophical problems. But then the
crucial question which this raises, which the scientistic conception of
philosophy obscures, is: what renders these problems philosophical? Is it
just that they arise at a premature scientific stage, before there is an
adequate theory to deal with them? But if that were the case, how could
we speak of there being perennial philosophical problems?
Wittgenstein sought to come to terms with this latter question
throughout his later writings. In 1931 he wrote:
You always hear people say that philosophy makes no progress
and that the same philosophical problems which were already
proccupying the Greeks are still troubling us today. I read: ‘…
philosophers are no nearer to the meaning of “Reality” than Plato
got,…’. What a strange situation. How extraordinary that Plato
could have even got as far as he did! Or that we could not get any
further! Was it because Plato was so extremely clever?3
Wittgenstein’s proposed explanation for this phenomenon—viz., ‘The
reason is that our language has remained the same and always introduces
us to the same questions’ (Ibid.)—drew from Russell the bitter complaint
that this would render philosophy ‘at best, a slight help to lexicographers,
and at worst, an idle tea-table amusement.’4 But this criticism rests on a
profound misreading of Wittgenstein’s conception of the nature of
philosophy. Indeed, the very assumption that the philosophers whom
Russell cites in My Philosophical Development (viz., Wittgenstein, Ryle,
Austin, Urmson and Strawson) can be identified as forming a
philosophical ‘school’ is deeply suspect. Admittedly, they all shared
certain fundamental attitudes towards the proper method of resolving
philosophical problems, but in no way did they all share the same
philosophical interests and objectives, let alone subscribe to a common set
of philosophical doctrines or theses.
The basic premiss Wittgenstein was advancing is that questions
about the nature of concepts belong to logic, and that we clarify the
nature of a concept by surveying the manner in which the concept-
word is used or learnt. Russell attributed to Wittgenstein the view that
philosophical problems can be resolved by studying the ordinary
grammar of concept-words. But nothing could be further from the
truth. The fundamental principle underlying Wittgenstein’s argument
is that the source of a philosophical problem often lies in a crucial and
often elusive difference between the surface grammar of a concept-word
and its depth or logical grammar, or in the philosopher’s tendency to
treat what are disguised grammatical propositions as if they were
empirical propositions.
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INTRODUCTION
Where Russell was certainly right, however, was in thinking that the
later Wittgenstein was fundamentally opposed to the scientistic
conception of philosophy. In his 1930 lectures Wittgenstein announced:
What we find out in philosophy is trivial; it does not teach us new
facts, only science does that. But the proper synopsis of these
trivialities is enormously difficult, and has immense importance.
Philosophy is in fact the synopsis of trivialities.5
This means that the task of philosophy is to clarify concepts and theories,
not to draw inductive generalizations or to formulate theses. Indeed,
Wittgenstein went so far as to insist, ‘The philosopher is not a citizen of
any community of ideas. That is what makes him into a philosopher.’6
Wittgenstein did not mean to suggest by this that philosophy does not
have a crucial role to play vis-à-vis science. In the Bouwsma Notes he
remarks that ‘the consummation of philosophy’ in the twentieth century
might very well lie in the clarification of scientific theories: in ‘work which
does not cheat and where the confusions have been cleared up’.7 But this
would seem to limit philosophy to the task of interpreting scientific prose:
the ‘history of evolving ideas’, as it were. And as the following chapters
demonstrate, the philosophies of logic, mathematics and science this
century took Principia Mathematica not The A.B.C of Relativity as their
standard-bearer.
What’s more, there is a real danger in this thought that the principal
role of philosophy is to describe and not explain. For it has a tendency to
promote the view that philosophers are armchair critics, akin to theatre
critics, both professionally and temperamentally set apart from the
scientific writings whose shortcomings it is their chief job to expose. Not
surprisingly, one frequently hears the complaint from scientists that
philosophers have been seduced by the negative: that they criticize a
theory without appreciating the subtle difficulties involved, or without
making the necessary effort to master the literature underpinning a
scientific issue. Yet philosophers, even scientistic philosophers, are in no
rush to lose their distinctive identity. There has thus been marked hostility
and frustration on both sides of the ‘philosophy versus science’ divide.
These are important emotions. For if philosophy were irrelevant to the
ongoing development of logic, mathematics and science, there would be
neither anger nor impatience: only disinterest. But one constantly hears
the demand from scientists for positive philosophical input. So the
question which this naturally raises is, what is impeding this union? Is it
perhaps the very terms in which twentieth-century philosophy has tried
to assess its relation to science? Is it not significant that both scientism and
ordinary language philosophy have strong nineteenth-century roots: the
former in scientific materialism and the latter in hermeneutics? Indeed, is
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not the battle between scientism and ordinary language philosophy
reminiscent—and perhaps simply a continuation—of the battle between
scientific materialism and hermeneutics? If there has not been a decisive
victory by either side, is it, perhaps, because each is articulating an
important truth: and, perhaps, omitting an important aspect of the
development of the philosophy of logic, mathematics and science this
century?
We can turn again to Wittgenstein to appreciate this point. At the
close of the second book of Philosophical Investigations Wittgenstein
remarks how, ‘in psychology there are experimental methods and
conceptual confusion… The existence of the experimental method makes us
think we have the means of solving the problems which trouble us;
though problem and method pass one another by’.8 Ironically, a few
cognitivists actually greeted Wittgenstein’s censure as confirming the
importance of the post-computational revolution. For example, F.H.
George insisted that:
[Wittgenstein’s] criticism of experimental psychology, at the time it
was made, [was] almost entirely justified. Experimental
psychologists were, at that time, struggling to unscramble their
concepts and clarify their language and models: at worst they
believed that as long as a well-controlled experiment was carried
out, the mere accumulation of facts would make a science. The
relation, so vital to the development of psychology, between
experimental results, by way of interpretation and explanatory
frameworks, models, used largely to be neglected.9
On this reading, the mechanist paradigm that Wittgenstein was attacking
was fundamentally displaced by Turing’s version of Church’s thesis.
Hence, Wittgenstein’s concerns are now hopelessly dated for:
Almost everyone now acknowledges that theory and experiment,
model making, theory construction and linguistics all go together,
and that the successful development of a science of behavior
depends upon a ‘total approach’ in which, given that the computer
‘is the only large-scale universal model’ that we possess, ‘we may
expect to follow the prescription of Simon and construct our
models—or most of them—in the form of computer programs’.10
Ignoring his enthusiasm here for the post-computational mechanist
revolution, what is most intriguing about George’s interpretation of
Wittgenstein’s argument is the manner in which he seeks to synthesize
scientism with ordinary language philosophy. On this argument,
philosophy enters a scientific enterprise at its very beginnings; it serves an
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INTRODUCTION
important role in clearing away the confusions inhibiting the construction
of a comprehensive explanatory framework. But once the new model is in
place, philosophy has no further constructive role to play. For, as George
puts it, ‘much of this conceptual confusion has now disappeared’.11
Is this really the case? Has philosophy been even more successful than
Russell envisaged? The philosophies of logic, mathematics and science
have been driven by five leading problems this century:
1 What is the nature of logic, of logical truth?
2 What is the nature of mathematics: of mathematical propositions,
mathematical conjectures, and mathematical proof?
3 What is the nature of formal systems, and what is their relation to
what Hilbert called ‘the activity of understanding’?
4 What is the nature of language: of meaning, reference, and truth?
5 What is the nature of mind: of consciousness, mental states, mental
processes?
I have limited these to five problems to suggest a generational flux. A few
philosophers have, of course, been active in all these areas throughout the
century, but there is some basis for viewing the development of the
philosophies of logic, mathematics and science in the twentieth century in
terms of the succession of these five leading problems.
Now, very few philosophers would be willing to consign any, let alone
all five, of these problems to the ‘History of Ideas’. What the following
chapters reveal is not the resolution of these issues, but the deepening
understanding we have achieved of the nature of logic, mathematics,
language and cognition. Moreover, as the century has progressed, it has
become increasingly tenuous to suppose that philosophy is either
conceptually prior to science, i.e., that philosophy clears away the
confusions so that the proper business of theory-making can proceed—or
that philosophy is conceptually posterior to science, i.e., that philosophy
is restricted to correcting the errors that occur in scientific prose. For the
advances that have been realized in the topics covered in this volume are
not simply the result of philosophical reflection, or well-controlled
experiments, but rather, are the outcome of a complex interplay of
philosophic and scientific techniques as practised by both philosophers
and scientists.
Thus, each of the chapters in this volume is as important to science
students as the relevant science textbooks are to philosophy students. The
point here is not that the categorial difference between philosophy and
science—between philosophical and empirical problems, or philosophical
and empirical methods—is disappearing, but that the formal, or
institutional demarcation of these activities is fast becoming obsolete. All
over the world interdisciplinary units are springing up which are
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specifically designed to train their students in various cognitive sciences
as well as in philosophy. This is a reflection of the fact that scientists
themselves are constantly engaged in conceptual clarification, while
philosophers have grasped the importance of entering fully into the
community of science if their efforts are to serve the needs of scientists.
What has been consigned to the ‘History of Ideas’ are the old terms of the
‘philosophy versus science’ debate. But the following chapters are not just
history; more fundamentally, they are a harbinger of the great changes we
can continue to expect in the ongoing evolution of philosophy.
NOTES
1 Bertrand Russell, ‘On Scientific Method in Philosophy’, in Mysticism
and Logic, London, Longmans, Green and Company, 1918.
2 Bertrand Russell, The Problems of Philosophy, Oxford, Oxford
University Press, 1959.
3 Ludwig Wittgenstein, Culture and Value, P.Winch (trans.), Oxford,
Basil Blackwell, 1980, p. 15.
4 Bertrand Russell, My Philosophical Development, London, George Allen
and Unwin, 1959, p. 161.
5 Ludwig Wittgenstein, Wittgenstein Lectures: Cambridge 1930–1932,
D.Lee (ed.) Oxford, Blackwell, 1980, p. 26.
6 Ludwig Wittgenstein, Zettel, G.E.M.Anscombe and G.H.von Wright
(eds), G.E.M.Anscombe (trans.), Oxford, Blackwell, 1967, section 455.
7 O.K.Bouwsma, Wittgenstein, L.Conversations 1949–1951, J.L.Craft and
R. E.Hustwit (eds) Indianapolis, Hackett Publishing Company, 1986,
p. 28.
8 Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, Oxford, Blackwell,
1953, p. 232.
9 F.H.George, Cognition, London, Methuen, 1962, pp. 21–2.
10 Ibid.
11 Ibid.
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CHAPTER 1
Philosophy of logic
A.D.Irvine
The relationship between evidence and hypothesis is fundamental to the
advancement of science. It is this relationship—referred to as the
relationship between premisses and conclusion—which lies at the heart of
logic. Logic, in this traditional sense, is the study of correct inference. It is
the study of formal structures and non-formal relations which hold
between evidence and hypothesis, reasons and belief, or premisses and
conclusion. It is the study of both conclusive (or monotonic) and
inconclusive (non-monotonic or ampliative) inferences or, as it is also
commonly described, the study of both entailments and inductions.
Specifically, logic involves the detailed study of formal systems designed
to exhibit such entailments and inductions. More generally, though, it is
the study of those conditions under which evidence rightly can be said to
justify, entail, imply, support, corroborate, confirm or falsify a conclusion.
In this broad sense, logic in the twentieth century has come to include,
not only theories of formal entailment, but informal logic, probability
theory, confirmation theory, decision theory, game theory and theories of
computability and epistemic modelling as well. As a result, over the
course of the century the study of logic has benefited, not only from
advances in traditional fields such as philosophy and mathematics, but
also from advances in other fields as diverse as computer science and
economics. Through Frege and others late in the nineteenth century,
mathematics helped transform logic from a merely formal discipline to a
mathematical one as well, making available to it the resources of
contemporary mathematics. In turn, logic opened up new avenues of
investigation concerning reasoning in mathematics, thereby helping to
develop new branches of mathematical research—such as set theory and
category theory—relevant to the foundations of mathematics itself.
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Similarly, much of twentieth-century philosophy—including advances in
metaphysics, epistemology, the philosophy of mathematics, the
philosophy of science, the philosophy of language and formal
semantics—closely parallels this century’s logical developments. These
advances have led in turn to a broadening of logic and to a deeper
appreciation of its application and extent. Finally, logic has provided
many of the underlying theoretical results which have motivated the
advent of the computing era, learning as much from the systematic
application of these ideas as it has from any other source.
This chapter is divided into four sections. The first, ‘The Close of the
Nineteenth Century’, summarizes the logical work of Boole, Frege and
others prior to 1900. The second, ‘From Russell to Gödel’, discusses
advances made in formal logic from 1901, the year in which Russell
discovered his famous paradox, to 1931, the year in which Gödel’s
seminal incompleteness results appeared. The third section, ‘From Gödel
to Friedman’, discusses developments in formal logic made during the
fifty years following Gödel’s remarkable achievement. Finally, the fourth
section, ‘The Expansion of Logic’, discusses logic in the broader sense as it
has flourished throughout the latter half of the twentieth century.
THE CLOSE OF THE NINETEENTH
CENTURY
‘Logic is an old subject, and since 1879 it has been a great one.’1 This
judgment appears as the opening sentence of W.V.Quine’s 1950 Methods of
Logic. The sentence is justly famous—even if it has about it an air of
exaggeration—for nothing less than a revolution had occurred in logic by
the end of the nineteenth century.
Several important factors led to this revolution, but without doubt the
most important of these concerned the mathematization of logic. Since
the time of Aristotle, logic had taken as its subject matter formal patterns
of inference, both inside and outside mathematics. Aristotle’s Organon
had been intended as nothing less than a tool or canon governing correct
inference. However, it was not until the mid-nineteenth century that
logic came to be viewed as a subject which could be developed
mathematically, alongside other branches of mathematics. The leaders
in this movement—George Boole (1815–64), Augustus DeMorgan (1806–
71), William Stanley Jevons (1835–82), Ernst Schröder (1841–1902), and
Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914)—all saw the potential for
developing what was to be called an ‘algebra of logic’, a mathematical
means of modelling the abstract laws governing formal inference.
However, it was not until the appearance, in 1847, of a small pamphlet
entitled The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, that Boole’s calculus of
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classes—later extended by Schröder and Peirce to form a calculus of
relations—successfully achieved this end.
Boole had been prompted to write The Mathematical Analysis of Logic by
a public dispute between DeMorgan and the philosopher William
Hamilton (1788–1856) over the quantification of the predicate. As a result,
Boole’s landmark pamphlet was the first successful, systematic
application of the methods of algebra to the subject of logic. So impressed
was DeMorgan that two years later, in 1849, despite Boole’s lack of
university education, he was appointed Professor of Mathematics at
Queen’s College, Cork, Ireland, largely on DeMorgan’s recommendation.
Five years following his appointment, Boole’s next work, An Investigation
of the Laws of Thoughts, expanded many of the ideas introduced in his
earlier pamphlet. In the Laws of Thought, Boole developed more
thoroughly the formal analogy between the operations of logic and
mathematics which would help revolutionize logic. Specifically, his
algebra of logic showed how recognizably algebraic formulas could be
used to express and manipulate logical relations.
Boole’s calculus, which is known today as the theory of Boolean
algebras, can be viewed as a formal system consisting of a set, S, over
which three operations, ʝ (or ×, representing intersection), ʜ (or +,
representing union), and ‘ (or -, representing complementation) are
defined, such that for all a, b, and c that are members of S, the following
axioms hold:
(1) Commutativity:
aʝb=bʝa, and aʜb=bʜa
(2) Associativity:
aʝ(bʝc)=(aʝb)ʝc, and aʜ(bʜc)=(aʜb)ʜc
(3) Distributivity:
aʝ(bʜc)=(aʝb)ʜ(aʝc), and aʜ(bʝc)=(aʜb)ʝ
(aʜc)
(4) Identity:
There exist two elements, 0 and 1, of S such that,aʜ0=a,
and aʝ1=a
(5) Complementation:
For each element a in S, there is an element a’ such that
aʜa’=1, and aʝa’=0.
The logical utility of the system arises once it is realized that many logical
relations are successfully formalizable in it. For example, by letting a and b
represent variables for statements or propositions, ʝ represent the truth-
functional connective ‘and’, and ʜ represent the truth-functional
connective ‘or’, the commutativity axioms assert that statements of the
form ‘a and b’ are equivalent to statements of the form ‘b and a’, and that
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statements of the form ‘a or b’ are equivalent to statements of the form ‘b
or a’. Similarly, by letting ‘ represent truth-functional negation, the
complementation axioms assert that for each statement, a, there is a
second statement, not-a, such that the statement ‘a or not-a’ is true and the
statement ‘a and not-a’ is false. A similar interpretation (which identifies
electronic gates with Boolean operators) provides the foundation for the
theory of switching circuits. Thus, by 1854 the mathematization of logic
was well under way.
A second important factor concerning the advancement of logic during
this period had to do, not with the mathematization of logic, but with the
logicizing of mathematics. The idea of reducing mathematics to logic had
been advocated first by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716) and later
by Richard Dedekind (1831–1916). In general, it amounted to a two-part
proposal: first, that the concepts of (some or all branches of) mathematics
were to be defined in terms of purely logical concepts and, second, that
the theorems of (these same branches of) mathematics were in turn to be
deduced from purely logical axioms. However, it was not until the late
nineteenth century that the logical tools necessary for attempting such a
project were discovered.
Not accidentally, the attempt to logicize mathematics coincided with a
process of systematizing and rigorizing mathematics generally. Many
commentators had called for such work to be done. Earlier discoveries by
Gerolamo Saccheri (1667–1733), Karl Gauss (1777–1855), Nikolai Lobachevski
(1793–1856), János Bolyai (1802–60) and Bernhard Riemann (1826–66) in
the development of non-Euclidean geometry had led to a new sensitivity
about axiomatics and about foundations generally. Thus, by the late 1800s,
the critical movement—which had begun in the 1820s—had eliminated many
of the contradictions and much of the vagueness contained in many early
nineteenth century mathematical theories. Bernard Bolzano (1781–1848),
Niels Abel (1802–29), Louis Cauchy (1789–1857) and Karl Weierstrass (1815–
97) had successfully taken up the challenge of rigorizing the calculus.
Weierstrass, Dedekind and Georg Cantor (1845–1918) had all independently
developed methods for founding the irrationals in terms of the rationals
and, as early as 1837, William Rowan Hamilton (1805–65) had introduced
ordered couples of reals as the first step in supplying a logical basis for the
complex numbers. By 1888, Dedekind had also developed a consistent
postulate set for axiomatizing the set of natural (or counting) numbers, N.
Building upon these results, as well as others by H.G.Grassmann (1809–
77), Guiseppe Peano (1858–1932) was then able to develop systematically,
not just a theory of arithmetic and of the rationals, but a reasonably detailed
theory of real limits as well. The results appeared in Peano’s 1889 Arithmetics
Principia.
Beginning with four axioms governing his underlying logic, and the
five (now famous) Peano postulates first introduced by Dedekind, Peano
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defined the set of natural numbers as a series of successors to the number
zero. Letting ‘0’ stand for zero, ‘s(x)’ stand for the successor of x, and ‘N’
stand for the set of natural numbers, the non-logical postulates may be
listed as follows:
(1) Zero is a number:
(2) Zero is not the successor of any number:
(3) The successor of every number is a number:
(4) No two distinct numbers have the same successor:
(5) The Principle of Mathematical Induction, that if zero has a
property, P, and if whenever a number has the property its
successor also has the property, then all numbers have the
property:
Thus, beginning with a few primitive notions, it was in principle possible
to derive almost all of mathematics in a rigorous, coherent fashion.
Despite this, the task of formally relating most of logic to mathematics
remained virtually unadvanced since the time of Boole.
Crucial to further advancement was the introduction of the quantifiers
and the development of the predicate calculus. The introduction of the
quantifiers resulted from the independent work of several authors, including
Peirce and Schröder, but predominantly it came about through the work of
Gottlob Frege (1848–1925). It is possible that Peirce was the first to arrive at
the notion of a quantifier, although explicit mention of either the universal
or the existential quantifier does not appear in his published writings until
1885. Frege, in contrast, first published his account in 1879 in his now famous
Begriffsschrift (meaning literally ‘concept writing’). Hence the date in Quine’s
famous aphorism. Subtitled ‘a formula language, modeled upon that of
arithmetic, for pure thought’, the Begriffsschrift took as its goal nothing less
than a rigorization of proof itself. Said Frege,
My intention was not to represent an abstract logic in formulas, but
to express a content through written signs in a more precise and
clear way than it is possible to do through words. In fact, what I
wanted to create was not a mere calculus ratiocinator but a lingua
characterica in Leibniz’s sense.2
The result was the introduction of a very general symbolic language
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suitable for expressing the type of formal inferences used in
mathematical proofs. By combining expressions representing
individuals and predicates (properties and relations) with the
prepositional connectives (‘and’, ‘or’, ‘not’, etc.) and quantifiers (‘all’,
‘some’), Frege succeeded in producing a language powerful enough to
express even the most complicated of mathematical statements. Frege
immediately put his language to work, applying it as he did to his project
of logicizing arithmetic. By the time his Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik
appeared in 1884, Frege had arrived at the appropriate logical definitions
for the necessary arithmetical terms and had begun work on the essential
derivations. The derivations themselves appeared in his two-volume
Grundgesetze der Arithmetik in 1893 and 1903. Thus, it is Frege, along with
Boole, who is generally credited as being one of the two most important
founders of modern formal logic.
The Begriffsschrift was Frege’s first work in logic, but it is a landmark
one, for in it he develops the truth-functional prepositional calculus, the
theory of quantification (or predicate calculus), an analysis of
propositions in terms of functions and arguments (instead of in terms of
subject and predicate), a definition of the notion of mathematical
sequence and the notion of a purely formal system of derivation or
inference. Of these contributions, Frege’s unique insight with regard to
the predicate calculus was to note the inadequacy of the traditional
subject/predicate distinction, and to replace it with one from
mathematics, that of function and argument. For Frege, once arguments
have been substituted into the free variables of a prepositional function, a
judgement is obtained. In short, a word in a statement which can be
replaced by other words is itself an argument, while the remainder of the
sentence is the function. The fact that the Begriffsschrift additionally
contains the first formally adequate notation for quantification, together
with the first successful formalization of first-order logic, has guaranteed
it a position of unique importance in the history of logic.
Unfortunately, for much of his life, Frege’s work was met with
indifference or hostility on the part of his contemporaries. Response to
the Begriffsschrift was typified by a rather caustic review by Cantor, who
had not even bothered to read the book. Frege’s axioms for the
propositional calculus (which use negation and material implication as
primitive connectives) turned out not to be independent and, in
addition to his one stated rule of inference, detachment (also called
modus ponens, the rule that given well-formed formulas of the form p and
p → q, one can infer a well-formed formula of the form q), an unstated
rule of substitution was also used. However, the most important reason
for the Begriffsschrift’s poor reception was the difficulty of working with
Frege’s rather idiosyncratic and cumbersome logical notation, which has
not survived. Thus, it was not until others were able to replace Frege’s
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notation, and further rigorize his logic, that Frege’s discoveries began to
receive the prominence they deserved. None the less, it is Frege’s
analysis of propositions into functions and arguments, along with his
introduction of the quantifiers, which to this day remain at the heart of
the development of modern logic.
Yet a third factor contributing to the revolutionary advancement of
logic during the late nineteenth century was Cantor’s discovery of set
theory. Intuitively, a set can be thought of as any collection of well-defined
distinct objects. In Cantor’s words, by the idea of a set ‘we are to
understand any collection into a whole M of definite and separate objects
m of our intuition or our thought’.3 The objects which determine each set
are called the elements or members of that set. The symbol is used
regularly to denote the relation of membership or elementhood. Thus ‘m
M’ is read ‘m is an element (or member) of M’ or ‘m belongs to M’. Two
sets are identical if and only if they contain exactly the same elements;
thus, if A={1, 2, 3} and
then A=B.
With little more than these beginnings, Cantor was able to show that
the cardinality of the set of all subsets of any given set (i.e. the power
set of that set) is always greater than that of the set itself, thus
introducing the modern hierarchy of sets. In addition, he showed that
the set of real numbers is non-denumerable (or, equivalently, that the
cardinality of the continuum of reals, R, is greater than that of N).
Cantor proved both results in 1891 by means of a diagonal argument,
an argument designed to construct objects, on the basis of other objects,
and in such a way that the new objects are guaranteed to differ from
the old. Cantor’s diagonal argument therefore provides an important
example of a modern impossibility proof since, by using it, he proved
the non-denumerability of the reals by showing that a one-to-one
correspondence between the natural numbers and the reals is
impossible. It also followed from Cantor’s work that infinite sets could
consistently be placed in one-to-one correspondence with proper
subsets of themselves, thus disproving Euclid’s general axiom that the
whole is necessarily greater than the part. Such unintuitive results
meant that set theory, like non-Euclidean geometry before it, would
soon lead to further questions about the nature of proof. The question of
when to rely upon axioms which, up until this point had still regularly
been based upon ‘clear and distinct ideas’, therefore became crucial.
The fact that there was also an intuitive identity between the extension
of a predicate and its corresponding set meant that developments in
set theory were bound to affect logic.
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FROM RUSSELL TO GÖDEL
If it is fair to say that by the end of the nineteenth century logic had
become invigorated as a result of its connections with mathematics, it is
also fair to say that mathematics was becoming similarly invigorated as a
result of its connections with logic. In fact, it was the interplay between
logic and mathematics which led a host of figures in both disciplines—
including most famously David Hilbert (1862–1943), L.E. J.Brouwer
(1881–1966), Arend Heyting (1898–1980), A.N.Whitehead (1861–1947),
Bertrand Russell (1872–1970), Ernst Zermelo (1871–1953), Kurt Gödel
(1906–78), Alfred Tarski (1902–83), Alonzo Church (b. 1903) and
W.V.Quine (b. 1908)—to concentrate their efforts upon foundational
issues in logic and mathematics. Many were prompted to do so as a result
of a problem which affected both logic and mathematics equally, the
problem of the antinomies.
In 1900 many of the world’s best philosophers met to attend the Third
International Congress of Philosophy, held in Paris from 1 to 5 August.
Following the Congress, a significant number of philosophers remained
in Paris for the Second International Congress of Mathematicians, which
was being held immediately afterwards, from 6 to 12 August. It was at
these later meetings that Hilbert delivered his famous keynote address
welcoming the mathematical world to Paris. Conscious of his place in
history, Hilbert took the occasion to remind his audience of the challenges
facing them as they entered a new century:
If we would obtain an idea of the probable development of
mathematical knowledge in the immediate future, we must let the
unsettled questions pass before our minds and look over the
problems which the science of to-day sets and whose solution we
expect from the future. To such a review of problems the present
day, lying at the meeting of the centuries, seems to be well
adapted… However unapproachable these problems may seem to
us and however helpless we stand before them, we have,
nevertheless, the firm conviction that their solution must follow by
a finite number of purely logical processes… This conviction of the
solvability of every mathematical problem is a powerful incentive
to the worker. We hear within us the perpetual call: There is the
problem. Seek its solution. You can find it by reason, for in
mathematics there is no ignorabimus.4
To emphasize his challenge, Hilbert presented his now famous list of
twenty-three major unsolved logical and mathematical problems. First on
Hilbert’s list was Cantor’s continuum problem, the problem of
determining whether there is a set with cardinality greater than that of the
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natural numbers but less than that of the continuum. Second on the list,
but equally important from the point of view of the logician, was the
problem of proving an axiom set consistent or, as Hilbert put it, the
problem of the ‘compatibility of the arithmetical axioms’. Although
primarily of theoretical interest in 1900, it was a problem which would,
within the year, take on new urgency.
It was also at these meetings that Russell met Peano. By all accounts the
meeting was a congenial one. As Russell reports:
The Congress was a turning point in my intellectual life, because I
there met Peano. I already knew him by name and had seen some
of his work, but had not taken the trouble to master his notation. In
discussions at the Congress I observed that he was always more
precise than anyone else, and that he invariably got the better of
any argument upon which he embarked. As the days went by, I
decided that this must be owing to his mathematical logic.5
Thus, impressed by Peano and his logic, Russell returned to England,
motivated to begin work on his Principles of Mathematics and confident
that any problem he might set for himself would quickly be solved. As one
might guess, Russell’s Principles was to be heavily influenced, not only by
Peano’s Arithmetices Principia, but also by Frege’s Begriffsschrift and
Grundlagen. Russell finished the first draft of the manuscript, as he tells us,
‘on the last day of the century’, 31 December 1900.6
Five months later, in May 1901, Russell discovered his now famous
paradox. The paradox comes from considering the set of all sets which are
not members of themselves, since this set must be a member of itself if and
only if it is not a member of itself. As a result, one must attempt to find a
principled way of denying the existence of such a set. Cesare Burali-Forti
(1861–1931), an assistant to Peano, had discovered a similar antinomy in
1897 when he had observed that since the set of ordinals is well-ordered, it
therefore must have an ordinal. However, this ordinal must be both an
element of the set of ordinals and yet greater than any ordinal in the set.
Hence the contradiction.7
After worrying about the difficulty for over a year, Russell wrote to
Frege with news of the paradox on 16 June 1902. The antinomy was a
crucial one, since Frege claimed that an expression such as f(a) could be
considered to be both a function of the argument f and a function of the
argument a. In effect, it was this ambiguity which allowed Russell to
construct his paradox within Frege’s logic. As Russell explains:
this view [that f(a) may be viewed as a function of either f or of a]
seems doubtful to me because of the following contradiction. Let w
be the predicate: to be a predicate that cannot be predicated of
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itself. Can w be predicated of itself? From each answer its opposite
follows. Therefore we must conclude that w is not a predicate.
Likewise there is no class (as a totality) of those classes which, each
taken as a totality, do not belong to themselves. From this I
conclude that under certain circumstances a definable collection
does not form a totality.8
Russell’s letter to Frege, in effect telling him that his axioms were
inconsistent, arrived just as the second volume of his Grundgesetze was
in press. (Other antinomies were to follow shortly, including those
discovered by Jules Richard (1862–1956) and Julius König (1849–1913),
both in 1905.) Immediately appreciating the difficulty, Frege attempted
to revise his work, adding an appendix to the Grundgesetze which
discussed Russell’s discovery. Nevertheless, he eventually felt forced to
abandon his logicism. A projected third volume of the Grundgesetze
which had been planned for geometry never appeared. Frege’s later
writings show that Russell’s discovery had convinced him of the
falsehood of logicism, and that he had opted instead for the view that all
of mathematics, including number theory and analysis, was reducible
only to geometry.
Despite his abandonment of logicism, it was Frege’s dedication to truth
which Russell commented upon in a letter many years later:
As I think about acts of integrity and grace, I realize that there is
nothing in my knowledge to compare with Frege’s dedication to
truth. His entire life’s work was on the verge of completion, much
of his work had been ignored to the benefit of men infinitely less
capable,…and upon finding that his fundamental assumption was
in error, he responded with intellectual pleasure clearly
submerging any feelings of personal disappointment. It was almost
superhuman and a telling indication of that which men are capable
if their dedication is to creative work and knowledge instead of
cruder efforts to dominate and be known.9
With the appearance of Russell’s paradox, Hilbert’s problem of proving
consistency took on new urgency. After all, since (in classical logic) all
sentences follow from a contradiction, no mathematical proof could be
trusted once it was discovered that the underlying logic was
contradictory. Important responses came not only from Hilbert and
Russell, but from Brouwer and Zermelo as well.
The seeds of Hilbert’s response were contained in his 1904 address to
the Third International Congress of Mathematicians. In this address,
Hilbert presented his first attempt at proving the consistency of
arithmetic. (Earlier, in 1900, he had attempted an axiomatization of the
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reals, R, and showed that the consistency of geometry depends upon the
consistency of R.) Hilbert recognized that an attempt to avoid the
contradictions by formalizing one’s metalanguage would only lead to a
vicious regress. As a result, he opted instead for an informal logic and
metalanguage whose principles would be universally acceptable. His
basic idea was to allow the use of only finite, well-defined and
constructible objects, together with rules of inference which were
deemed to be absolutely certain. Controversial principles such as the
axiom of choice were to be explicitly excluded. The programme
variously became known as the finitary method, formalism, proof
theory, metamathematics and Hilbert’s programme. Together with
Wilhelm Ackermann (1896–1962), Hilbert went on to publish Grundzüge
der Theoretischen Logik (Principles of Mathematical Logic) in 1928 and,
together with Paul Bernays (1888–1977), the monumental two-volume
work Die Grundlagen der Mathematik (Foundations of Mathematics), in 1934
and 1939, respectively. This latter work recorded the results of the
formalist school up until 1938, including work done following the
publication of Gödel’s 1931 incompleteness theorems, after which it was
concluded that the original finitistic methods of the programme had to
be expanded.
Hilbert’s finitary method had similarities to a second important
response to the antinomies, that of Brouwer and the intuitionists. Like
Hilbert, Brouwer held that one cannot assert the existence of a
mathematical object unless one can also indicate how to go about
constructing it. However, Brouwer argued, in addition, that the
principles of formal logic were to be abstracted from purely mental
mathematical intuitions. Thus, since logic finds its basis in mathematics,
it could not itself serve as a foundation for mathematics. For similar
reasons, Brouwer rejected the actual infinite, accepting only
mathematical objects capable of effective construction by means of the
natural numbers, together with methods of finite constructibility. On
this view theoretical consistency would be guaranteed as a result of
reformed mathematical practice.
Russell’s own response to the paradox was contained in his aptly
named theory of types. Russell’s basic idea was that by ordering the
sentences of a language or theory into a hierarchy (beginning with
sentences about individuals at the lowest level, sentences about sets of
individuals at the next lowest level, sentences about sets of sets of
individuals at the next lowest level, etc.), one could avoid reference to
sets such as the set of all sets, since there would be no level at which
reference to such a set appears. It is then possible to refer to all things for
which a given condition (or predicate) holds only if they are all at the
same level or of the same ‘type’. The theory itself admitted of two
versions.
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According to the simple theory of types, it is the universe of
discourse (of the relevant language) which is to be viewed as forming a
hierarchy. Within this hierarchy, individuals form the lowest type; sets
of individuals form the next lowest type; sets of sets of individuals
form the next lowest type; and so on. Individual variables are then
indexed (using subscripts) to indicate the type of object over which
they range, and the language’s formation rules are restricted to allow
only sentences such as ‘an bm’ (where m=n+1) to be counted among the
(well-formed) formulas of the language. Such restrictions mean that
strings such as ‘xnʦxn’ are ill-formed, thereby blocking Russell’s
paradox.
The ramified theory of types goes further than the simple theory. It
does so by describing a hierarchy, not only of objects, but of closed and
open sentences (propositions and prepositional functions, respectively) as
well. The theory then adds the condition that no proposition or
prepositional function may contain quantifiers ranging over propositions
or prepositional functions of any order except those lower than itself.
Intuitively, this means that no proposition or prepositional function can
refer to, or be about, any member of the hierarchy other than those which
are defined in a logically prior manner. Since, for Russell, sets are to be
understood as logical constructs based upon prepositional functions, it
follows that the simple theory of types can be viewed as a special case of
the ramified theory.
Russell first introduced his theory in 1903 in his The Principles of
Mathematics. Later, in 1905, he abandoned the theory in order to
consider three potential alternatives: the ‘zigzag theory’, in which only
‘simple’ propositional functions determine sets; the ‘theory of
limitation of size’, in which the purported set of all entities is
disallowed; and the ‘no-classes theory’, in which sets are outlawed,
being replaced instead by sentences of certain kinds. Nevertheless, by
1908 Russell was to abandon all three of these suggestions in order to
return to the theory of types, which he develops in detail in his article
‘Mathematical Logic as Based on the Theory of Types’. The theory
finds its mature expression in Whitehead and Russell’s monumental
work defending logicism, Principia Mathematica, the first volume of
which appeared in 1910.
In order to justify both his simple and ramified theories, Russell
introduced the principle that ‘Whatever involves all of a collection
must not [itself] be one of the collection’.10 Following Henri Poincaré
(1854–1912), Russell called this principle the ‘Vicious Circle Principle’
(or VCP). Once the VCP is accepted, it follows that the claim—first
championed by Peano and later by Frank Ramsey (1903–30)—that
there is an important theoretical distinction between the set-theoretic
and the semantic paradoxes, is mistaken. The reason is that in both
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cases the VCP provides a philosophical justification for outlawing self-
reference.
Yet a fourth response to the paradoxes was Zermelo’s axiomatization of
set theory. In 1904 Zermelo had solved one of Hilbert’s twenty-three
problems of the 1900 Congress by proving that every set can be well
ordered. Four years later, in 1908, he developed the first standard
axiomatization, Z, of set theory, improving upon both Dedekind’s and
Cantor’s original, more fragmentary treatments.
Zermelo’s axioms were designed to resolve Russell’s paradox by
restricting Cantor’s naive principle of abstraction—the principle that from
each and every predicate expression a set could be formed. Specifically,
Zermelo’s axiom of replacement would disallow the construction of
paradoxical sets (such as the set of all sets that are not members of
themselves), but would still allow the construction of other sets necessary
for the development of mathematics. ZF, the axiomatization generally
used today, is a modification of Zermelo’s theory developed primarily by
Abraham Fraenkel (1891–1965). When ZF is supplemented by the axiom
of choice (proved independent by Fraenkel in 1922), the resulting theory,
ZFC, may be summarized as follows:
1 Axiom of Extensionality:
2 Sum Axiom:
3 Power Set Axiom:
4 Axiom of Regularity:
5 Axiom of Infinity:
6 Axiom Schema of Replacement:
If
then
7 Axiom of Choice:
For any set A there is a function, f, such that
for any non-empty subset, B, of A, f(B)ʦB.
As a result of the work of many others, including Thoralf Skolem (1887–
1963), Leopold Löwenheim (1878–1957), and John von Neumann (1903–
57), it is recognized that many additional axioms variously used to formalize
set theory may be derived from the above list of axioms. For example, the
separation axioms are derivable from the axiom schema of replacement;
the pairing axiom is derivable from the power set axiom together with the
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axiom schema of replacement; and the union axiom is derivable from the
axiom of extensionality, the sum axiom and the pairing axiom. (Other axioms,
such as an axiom for cardinals, that ᏷(A)=᏷(B)↔A≈B, are also occasionally
added to the above list to form extensions of ZFC.)
Overall, these four responses to the antinomies signalled the arrival of
a new and explicit awareness of the nature of formal systems and of the
kinds of metalogical results which are today commonly associated with
them. Specifically, formal systems are typically said to comprise:
1 a set of primitive symbols, which form the basic vocabulary of the
system;
2 a set of formation rules, which provide the basic grammar of the
system and which determine how primitive symbols may be
combined to form well-formed formulas (sentences) of the system;
3 a set of axioms, which articulate any fundamental assumptions of the
system; and
4 a set of transformation rules (or rules of inference), which provide the
mechanism for proving formulas of the system called theorems.
Together, 1 and 2 are said to constitute the formal language of the system,
3 and 4 the logic of the system, and 1–4 the primitive basis of the system as
a whole. A formal system thus consists essentially of an explicit, effective
mechanism for the selection of a well-defined subset of well-formed
formulas, known as the theorems of the system. Such systems may be
either axiomatic or natural deduction systems, depending upon whether
they emphasize the use of axioms at the expense of rules of inference, or
rules of inference at the expense of axioms. In either case, each theorem is
proved through a finite sequence of steps, each of which is either the
statement of an axiom, or is justified (possibly from earlier formulas) by
the allowed rules of inference.
Each formal system may be viewed from the point of view of proof
theory (i.e. from the point of view of the system’s syntax alone), but,
following Tarski, it may also be viewed from the point of view of model
theory (i.e. from the point of view of an interpretation, in which meanings
are assigned to the formal symbols of the system). Given a set, S, of well-
formed formulas, an interpretation consists of a non-empty set (or
domain), together with a function which:
1 assigns to each individual constant found in members of S an element
of the domain;
2 assigns to each n-place predicate found in members of S an n-place
relation between members of the domain;
3 assigns to each n-place function-name found in members of S a
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function whose arguments are n-tuples of elements of the domain and
whose values are also elements of the domain; and
4 assigns to each sentence letter a truth value.
Logical constants, such as those representing truth functions and quantifiers,
are assigned standard meanings using rules (such as truth tables) which
specify how well-formed formulas containing them are to be evaluated.
Any interpretation that satisfies the axioms of the system is called a model.
Among the most influential of formal systems to be developed were
of course those associated with Frege’s propositional and predicate
logics. Propositional (or sentential) logic may thus be defined as a
formal system or logical calculus which analyses truth-functional
relations between propositions (sentences or statements). Any such
system is based upon a set of propositional (sentential or statement)
constants and connectives (or operators) which are combined in various
ways to produce propositions of greater complexity. Standard
connectives include those representing negation (~), conjunction (&),
(inclusive) disjunction , material implication (→), and material
equivalence (↔). A standard axiomatization consists of several
definitions (including the definitions that p→q=df~p q, that
p&q=df~(~p ~q), and that p↔q=df(p→q) & (q→p)), the rules of
substitution and detachment, and the following axioms:
1 (p p)→p
2 q→(p q)
3 (p q)→(q p)
4 (q→r)→((p q)→(p r)).
Similarly, Hilbert’s positive propositional calculus (which contains all and
only those theorems of the classical calculus which are independent of
negation), Heyting’s intuitionistic propositional calculus (which uses
intuitionistic, rather than classical, negation), the several systems of
modal logic introduced by C.I.Lewis (1883–1964), and many-valued
logics, such as those introduced by Jan £ukasiewicz (1878–1956), are all
examples of propositional logics. (As £ukasiewicz also pointed out, logics
such as the standard propositional calculus may be reformulated, using
so-called Polish notation, in such a way as to avoid the need for scope
indicators such as parentheses; thus, letting N represent negation, K
represent conjunction, A represent disjunction (or alternation), R
represent exclusive disjunction, C represent material implication, E
represent material equivalence, L represent necessity, and M represent
possibility, sentences such as ~(p→(p & q)) and ٗ(p→p) may be
represented as NCpKpq and LCpp, respectively.)
Like propositional logic, predicate logic may also be defined as a
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formal system or logical calculus, but one which analyses the relations
between individuals and predicates within propositions, in addition to
the truth-functional relations between propositions which are analysed
within propositional logic. Each such system is based upon a set of
individual and predicate (or functional) constants, individual (and
sometime predicate) variables, and quantifiers (such as and ᭙) which
range over (some of) these variables, in addition to the standard constants
and connectives of the propositional calculus. A standard axiomatization
of first-order predicate logic can thus be viewed as an extension of the
propositional calculus. One such axiomatization consists of the formulas
and inference rules of the propositional calculus, together with the rule of
universal generalization (that if A is a theorem, so is A) and the
following axiom schemata:
1 If A is a uniform substitution instance of a valid well-formed formula
of propositional logic (i.e. a formula obtained from a valid formula of
propositional logic by uniformly replacing every variable in it by
some well-formed formula of the first-order predicate calculus), then
A is an axiom;
2 If a is an individual variable, A any well-formed formula, and B any
well-formed formula differing from A only in having some individual
variable b replacing every free occurrence of a in A, then A→B is
an axiom, provided that a does not occur within the scope of any
occurrence of a quantifier containing b;
3
(A→B)→(A→ B), provided a is not free in A.
Other predicate logics include second-order logic (also called the second-
order predicate or functional calculus), higher-order logics, in which
quantifiers and functions range over predicate (or functional) variables
and/or constants of the system, and modal (and other) extensions of both
first- and higher-order logics. When the set of individual or predicate
constants is empty, a predicate calculus is said to be pure; otherwise it is
said to be applied.
With propositional and predicate logic formalized, the systematic
metalogical study of formal properties of logical systems, and the
investigation of informal, philosophical problems resulting from such
results, began to develop. Among the most important metalogical results
to be proved at the level of propositional logic are the completeness and
soundness results (which show, respectively, that all valid formulas are
theorems of the system and that all theorems of the system are valid
formulas), the deduction theorem (which states that, if there is a proof
from ‘s1, s2,…, sn’ to ‘sn+1’, then there is also a proof from ‘s1, s2,…, sn-1’ to ‘if
sn then sn+1’), and the decidability result (which shows that there is an
effective, mechanical decision procedure—such as truth tables—for
determining the validity of any arbitrary formula of the system).
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Among the metatheorems proved for first-order logic are similar
completeness and soundness results, Tarski’s theorem concerning the
undefinability of (arithmetical) truth, and the now famous
Löwenheim-Skolem theorems. These are a family of metatheoretical
results proved by Löwenheim in 1915, and extended by Skolem in 1920
and 1922, to the effect that if there is an interpretation in which an
enumerable set of sentences is satisfiable in an enumerably infinite
domain then the set is also satisfiable in every infinite domain and,
similarly, that if there is an interpretation in which a set of sentences is
satisfiable in a non-empty domain then it is also satisfiable in an
enumerably infinite domain. This latter theorem gives rise to the so-
called ‘Skolem’s paradox’, the unintuitive (but ultimately non-
contradictory) result that systems for which Cantor’s theorem is
provable, and hence which must contain non-denumerable sets,
nevertheless must be satisfiable in a (smaller) enumerably infinite
domain.
Despite such impressive results, Hilbert’s goal of discovering a
consistency proof for arithmetic remained elusive. The explanation
came with a paper published by Gödel in 1931. Today Gödel is
remembered for several important results, any one of which would have
given him a position of importance in the history of logic. Most
famously, these included his proofs of the completeness and
compactness of first-order logic in 1930, and the incompleteness of
arithmetic in 1931. They also include results in constructive logic in 1932
and computation theory in 1933, as well as his 1938 proof that the
continuum hypothesis is consistent with the Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms
of set theory—in other words, that the usual axioms of set theory could
never prove the continuum hypothesis false. (That the negation of the
continuum hypothesis is also consistent with the Zermelo-Fraenkel
axioms of set theory, and hence that the hypothesis is independent of the
standard axiomatization for set theory, was proved twenty-five years
later by Paul Cohen (b. 1934).)
Of these results, several require further comment. It was in Gödel’s
1930 doctoral dissertation at the University of Vienna that the
completeness of the first-order predicate calculus was proved for the
first time. Completeness is the property that every valid formula of the
system is provable within the system. This turns out to be equivalent to
the claim that every formula is either refutable or satisfiable. Building
on the results of Löwenheim and Skolem, Gödel succeeded in proving
a result slightly stronger than this, a result which also entails the
Löwenheim-Skolem theorem. Gödel then generalized his result to
first-order logic with identity and to infinite sets of formulas. At the
same time Gödel proved the compactness theorem for first-order logic,
which states that any collection of well-formed formulas of a given
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language has a model if every finite subset of the collection has a
model.
Equally famous, however, are Gödel’s two theorems relating to the
incompleteness of systems of elementary number theory. The first of
these two theorems states that any ω-consistent system adequate for
expressing elementary number theory is incomplete, in the sense that
there is a valid well-formed formula of the system that is not provable
within the system. (A formal system is ω-consistent if whenever it has as
theorems that a given property, P, holds of all individual natural
numbers, then it fails to have as a theorem that P fails to hold of all
numbers.) In 1936 this theorem was extended by J.B.Rosser (b. 1907) to
apply, not just to any ω-consistent system, but to any consistent system of
the relevant sort. The second theorem states that no consistent system
adequate for expressing elementary number theory may contain a proof
of a sentence known to state the system’s consistency. Hence, the
difficulty in resolving Hilbert’s second problem.
Received by the publisher on 17 November 1930 but published the
following year, Gödel’s theorems were proved in what is, together
with Principia Mathematica, one of the two most famous logical works
of the current century: ‘Über Formal Unentscheidbare Sätze der
Principia Mathematica und Verwandter Systeme I’ (‘On Formally
Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related
Systems I’). The system Gödel uses is equivalent to the logic of
Whitehead and Russell’s Principia Mathematica without the ramified
theory of types but supplemented by the arithmetical axioms of
Peano. (A corollary shows that even supplemented by the axiom of
choice or the continuum hypothesis, the system still contains
undecidable propositions.)
By introducing his famous system of ‘Gödel numbering’, Gödel
assigns natural numbers to sequences of signs and sequences of
sequences of signs within the system. This is done in such a way that,
given any sequence, the number assigned to it can be effectively
calculated, and given any number, it can be effectively determined
whether a sequence is assigned to it and, if so, what it is.
Metamathematical predicates used to describe the system in this way can
be correlated with number-theoretic predicates. For example, the
metamathematical notion of being an axiom can be expressed using the
predicate Ax(x), which in turn corresponds to exactly those Gödel
numbers, x, which are correlated to the axioms of the system. Referring to
the set of axioms can then be accomplished simply by referring to this set
of Gödel numbers.
Theorem VI of Gödel’s 1931 paper states that in a formal system of the
specified kind there exists an undecidable proposition (that is, a
proposition such that neither it nor its negation is provable within the
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system). It is this theorem which is commonly referred to as Gödel’s first
incompleteness theorem (G1). In addition to proving G1, Gödel also
proves several other corollaries: for example, that among the
propositions whose validity is undecidable are both arithmetic
propositions (Theorem VIII) and formulas of pure first-order logic
(Theorem IX), and that a statement which expresses the consistency of
the system and which can be written as a formula in the system is itself
among those formulas not provable in the system (Theorem XI). It is this
last theorem, Theorem XI, which is commonly referred to as Gödel’s
second incompleteness theorem (G2). Both of Gödel’s incompleteness
theorems required that logicians and mathematicians view formal
systems of arithmetic in a new light.
FROM GÖDEL TO FRIEDMAN
Hilbert’s programme in effect had two main goals concerning the
foundations of mathematics. The first was descriptive, the second
justificatory. The descriptive goal was to be achieved by means of the
complete formalization of mathematics. The justificatory goal was to be
achieved by means of a finitary (and hence epistemologically acceptable)
proof of the reliability of those essential but non-finitary (and hence
epistemologically more suspect) parts of mathematics. Work by both
formalists and logicists during the first two decades of the century had
effectively accomplished the former of these two goals. Ideally a finitary
consistency proof would accomplish the latter.
Gödel’s second incompleteness theorem, G2, is often thought relevant
to Hilbert’s programme for just this reason. Specifically, it is often claimed
that G2 implies three philosophically significant corollaries: first, that any
consistency proof for a theory, T, of which G2 holds will have to rely upon
methods logically more powerful than those of theory T itself; second,
that (in any significant case) a consistency proof for theory T can yield no
epistemological gain and so cannot provide a satisfactory answer to the
sceptic regarding T’s consistency; and third, that as a result of this, G2, if
not strictly implying the outright failure of Hilbert’s programme, at the
very least indicates that significant modifications to it are needed. All
three of these ‘corollaries’ are controversial.11 In fact, Gödel himself
explicitly makes the point that the truth of G2 should not be viewed, by
itself, as sufficient reason for abandoning Hilbert’s goal of discovering a
finitary consistency proof:
I wish to note expressly that Theorem XI (and the corresponding
results for M and A) do not contradict Hilbert’s formalistic
viewpoint. For this viewpoint presupposes only the existence of a
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consistency proof in which nothing but finitary means of proof is
used, and it is conceivable that there exist finitary proofs that
cannot be expressed in the formalism of P (or of M or A).12
Nevertheless, the formalists themselves drew the moral that radical
changes to their programme were required; thus, the 1936 consistency
proof by Gerhard Gentzen (1909–45) required the use of transfinite
induction up to the ordinal ε0.
Other consequences also followed. Among them was a renewed
interest in the problem of decidability, the problem of finding an effective,
finite, mechanical, decision procedure (or algorithm) for determining
whether an arbitrary, well-formed formula of a system is in fact a theorem
of the system. A positive solution to such a problem is a proof that an
effective procedure exists. A negative solution is a proof that an effective
procedure does not exist. By 1931 it was already well known that a
positive solution existed in the case of prepositional logic, that a decision
procedure existed in the form of truth tables for determining whether an
arbitrary formula was a tautology. However, in 1936 Church proved that
there could be no such decision procedure for validity (or equivalently, for
semantic entailment) in first-order logic.
Church proved that there does exist a decision procedure for
determining that valid first-order sentences are valid. However, at the
same time he also proved that there is no corresponding procedure for
showing of sentences which are not valid that they are not valid. In
other words, although there is an effective, finite, mechanical, positive
test for first-order validity, there is, and can be, no such negative test.
Thus, given an arbitrary first-order sentence, there can be no effective,
finite, mechanical decision procedure for determining whether or not it
is valid.
Central to Church’s theorem was the idea of computability. Intuitively,
a computable function may be said to be any function for which there
exists an effective decision procedure or algorithm for calculating a
solution. Several suggestions were offered as a means of making this
notion more precise, not only by Gödel and Church, but by Emil Post
(1897–1954) and Alan Turing (1912–54) as well. One such precise
suggestion was to identify effective computability with that given by a
Turing machine; another was to identify it with a series of functions
identifiable in the lambda calculus; yet a third was to identify it with that
of a general recursive function. Perhaps surprisingly, all three notions
turned out to be equivalent. As a result, the thesis of identifying
computability with the mathematically precise notion of general
recursiveness became known alternatively as Church’s thesis or the
Church-Turing thesis.
Intuitively, a Turing machine can be thought of as a computer which
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manipulates information contained on a linear tape (which is infinite
in both directions) according to a series of instructions. More formally,
the machine can be thought of as a set of ordered quintuples, ͗qi, Si, Sj,
Ii, qj͘, where qi is the current state of the machine, Si is the symbol
currently being read on the tape, Sj is the symbol with which the
machine replaces Si, Ii is an instruction to move the tape one unit to the
right, to the left, or to remain where it is, and qj is the machine’s next
state. From this rather impoverished set of operations it turns out that
a wide range of functions are computable. It also turns out that the
decision problem for first-order validity is capable of being modelled
via Turing machines since, by assigning unique numbers to first-order
sentences, there will be a function which returns 1 if given a number
representing a valid sentence and 0 otherwise. The question of
whether this function is finitely and mechanically calculable turns out
to be equivalent to the so-called halting problem, the problem of
discovering an effective procedure for determining whether the
appropriate Turing machine will ever halt, given arbitrary input.
Church’s theorem is equivalent to the result that such a function is not
finitely and mechanically calculable.
Equivalent classes of functions turned out to be identifiable in the
lambda calculus and in recursion theory. The former gains its name from
the notation used to name functions. Terms such as ‘f(x)’ or the ‘successor
of y’ are used to refer to objects obtained from x or y by the appropriate
functions. To refer to the functions themselves, Church introduced a
notation which yields, respectively,
and ‘ (successor of y)’
Having done so, he then identified a class of functions which turned out
to be identical to both the Turing computable functions and the recursive
functions.
The latter may be defined as a set of functions whose members are said
to be either primitive recursive or general recursive, and which are
themselves constructed from a set of more fundamental functions by a
series of fixed procedures.
Specifically, a constant function is a function that yields the same value
for all arguments. A successor function is a function that yields as its value
the successor of its argument, for example, s(1)=2, s(35)=36. An identity
function of n arguments is a function that yields as its value the ith of its n
arguments. Together, the constant, successor and identity functions are
called the fundamental functions.
In addition, given a set of functions hi, each, of n arguments, a new
function, f, of n arguments is defined by composition such that the value of
the new function is equal to the value of a previously introduced function,
g, whose arguments are the values of each of the members of the original
set of functions when their arguments are the arguments of the newly
introduced function. In other words, if f is being defined by composition
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and g, h1,…hm are previously defined functions, then
f(x1,...,xn)=g(h1(x1,…,xn),…, hm(x1,…, xn)).
Similarly, a new function, f, of n arguments is defined by primitive
recursion as follows: first, if a designated argument is 0, then f is defined in
terms of a previously defined function, g, of n-1 arguments whose
arguments are taken to be exactly those of f except for the designated
argument, 0. In other words, if f is being defined by recursion and g is a
previously defined function, then f(x1,…,xn-1,0)=g(x1,…, xn). Second, if the
designated argument is not 0, and is instead the successor, c+1, of some
number, c, then f is defined in terms of a previously defined function, g, of
n+1 arguments whose arguments are taken to be exactly those of f except
for the designated argument, c+1, together with c and the value of f when
its arguments are exactly those arguments already given for g. In other
words, if f is being defined by recursion and g is a previously defined
function, then f(x1,…,xn-1, c+1)= g(x1,…, xn-1, c, f(x,…,xn-1,c)).
Any function which is either a fundamental function or can be
obtained from the fundamental functions by a finite number of
applications of composition and primitive recursion is then said to be a
primitive recursive function.
Next, a new function, f of n arguments is defined by minimization such
that its value (whenever it exists) is the least c such that, given a
previously defined function, g, whose arguments are exactly the
arguments of f together with c, g has the value 0. If there is no such c, then
f remains undefined for those arguments. In other words, if f is being
defined by minimization and g is a previously defined function, then
f(x1,…, xn)=the least c such that g(x1,…,xn, c)=0, provided that there exists
some c; otherwise f is undefined.
Any function which is either a fundamental function or can be
obtained from the fundamental functions by a finite number of
applications of composition, primitive recursion, and minimization is
then said to be a general recursive (or simply recursive) function.
Examples of recursive functions include familiar arithmetical
operations such as addition, multiplication, and others. Thus, letting z
refer to the zero function (a constant function which yields the value
zero), s the successor function, an identity function of n arguments
which yields its ith argument as its value, Cn composition, and Pr primitive
recursion, such functions can be defined as follows:
1 for sum, where sum(x, y)=x+y, we let
or, more intuitively, x+0=x and x+s(y)=s(x+y)
2 for product, where prod(x, y)=x.y, we let
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or, more intuitively, x.0=0 and x.s(y)=x+(x.y)
3 for exponentiation, where exp(x, y)=xy, we let
or, more intuitively, x0=1 and xs(y)=x.xy
4 for factorial, where fac(y)=y!, we let
or, more intuitively, 0!=1 and s(y)!=s(y).y!.
The proved identification of the class of recursive functions with the other
two classes of functions thought to express the intuitive concept of
computability lent strong support to the Church-Turing thesis.
Having observed both the incompleteness of first-order theories of
arithmetic and the undecidability of first-order validity, questions
naturally turned to other issues relating to computability. One such issue
is that of computational complexity. Another concerns the extent and
nature of arithmetical incompleteness. Recently, advances have been
made in both of these areas.
The computational complexity of a problem is a measure of the
computational resources required to solve the problem. In this context, the
distinction is made between problems solvable by polynomial-time
algorithms and problems which, if solvable, have solutions which are
testable in polynomial time but which, if not solvable, do not. Problems of
the former kind are said to be members of the class of problems P, while
problems of the latter kind are members of the class NP. Those problems
in NP which are measurably the hardest to solve are said to be NP-
complete. Today the problem of whether P=NP remains open.
Nevertheless, in 1971 Stephen Cook (b. 1939) proved that the problem of
satisfiability (the problem of determining, given an arbitrary set of
sentences, whether it is possible for all of the sentences to be jointly true) is
at least as difficult to solve as is any NP-complete problem [1.87]. The
result is important since it unifies the class of NP-complete problems in a
way that was unappreciated prior to 1971.
Similarly, advances have been made concerning the extent and nature
of arithmetical incompleteness. Chief among these are the 1981
independence results of Harvey Friedman (b. 1948) [1.58]. Friedman’s
contributions include the discovery of a series of mathematically natural
propositions (concerning Borel functions of several variables) that are
undecidable, not just in ZFC, but in the much stronger system of ZFC
together with the axiom of constructibility, V=L, as well. This is important
not simply because such propositions are of a level of abstraction
significantly lower than previous results, but because virtually all
propositions previously thought to have been undecidable have been
made decidable by the addition of the axiom of constructibility to ZFC.
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Importantly, Friedman has also shown that some of these propositions,
although undecidable in ZFC, are decidable in a competing theory, Morse-
Kelly class theory with choice. Such results are important since they
indicate in what ways competing axiomatizations of set theory in fact
differ.
THE EXPANSION OF LOGIC
As long ago as Galen (c. 129–c. 199) it was recognized that some sound
arguments could not adequately be analysed in terms of either
Aristotelian or Stoic logic. For example, neither the argument ‘if
Sophroniscus is father to Socrates, then Socrates is son to Sophroniscus’,
nor the argument ‘if Theon has twice as much as Dio, and Philo twice as
much as Theon, then Philo has four times as much as Dio’ is provably
valid in such systems.13 Thus, modern first-order logic can be viewed as a
means of extending the ancient idea of formal validity, since it
successfully displays many formally valid inferences which ancient logic
fails to capture.
One way of understanding the advent of contemporary nonclassical
and informal logics is to view them in much the same way. Such logics
regularly attempt to describe, in a systematic way, additional types of
reliable inference not captured in classical first-order logic. They do so in
two ways: first, extensions of classical logic attempt to exhibit reliable forms
of inference in addition to those displayed in first-order logic much as
first-order logic exhibits reliable forms of inference in addition to those
displayed in ancient logic or in modern propositional logic. Second,
competitors to classical logic advocate alternative ways of understanding
the idea of valid inference itself, rejecting in one way or another the concept
of validity as it is described in first-order logic.
Among the most philosophically interesting of the competitors to
classical logic are intuitionistic logics, relevance logics and
paraconsistent logics. Of these, intuitionistic logics were the first to
appear. Motivated by the intuitionistic idea that satisfactory proofs must
refer only to entities which can be successfully constructed or
discovered, intuitionist logic requires that we find examples, or that we
find algorithms for finding examples, of each object or set of objects
referred to in a proof. Formalized by Heyting, intuitionistic logic
therefore abandons those forms of classical proof (including indirect
proof) which do not contain the appropriate constructions. A standard
axiomatization consists of rules for substitution and detachment,
together with the following axioms:
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1 p→(p p)
2 (p q)→(q p)
3 (p→q)→((p r)→(q r))
4 ((p→q) (q→r))→(p→r)
6 (p (p→q))→q
7 p→(p q)
8 (p q)→(q p)
9 ((p→r) (q→r))→((p q)→r)
10 ¬p→(p→q)
11 ((p→q) (p→¬q))→¬p.
It follows in Heyting’s logic that the sentence ‘p ¬p’ is not a theorem and
that inferences, such as those from ‘¬¬p’ to ‘p’ and from
to
, are not allowed.
Like intuitionistic logic, relevance logic is a competitor to classical logic
which emphasizes a non-classical consequence relation. Like intuitionistic
logic, too, relevance logic results from a dissatisfaction with the classical
consequence relation. Developed by Alan Ross Anderson (1925–73), Nuel
Belnap (b. 1930) and others, the logic stresses entailments which involve
connections of relevance between premisses and conclusions, rather than
simple classical derivability conditions. It is intended that the relevance
consequence relation thereby avoids both the paradoxes of material
implication and the paradoxes of strict implication. (The former involve
the unintuitive but, strictly speaking, non-contradictory results to the
effect that whenever the antecedent is false or the consequent is true in a
material implication, the resulting implication will be true, regardless of
content; the latter involve the unintuitive, but likewise non-contradictory,
results that a necessary proposition is strictly implied by any proposition
and that an impossible proposition strictly implies all propositions,
regardless of content. Following Lewis’s 1912 definition, one sentence, p,
is said to strictly imply a second sentence, q, if and only if it is not possible
that both p and ~q.)
As it is normally formalized, relevance logic turns out to be a type of
paraconsistent logic. Such logics tolerate, but do not encourage,
inconsistencies. They do so in the sense that a contradiction (the joint
assertion of a proposition and its denial) may be contained within the
system; at the same time they are consistent in the sense that not every
well-formed formula is a theorem. One example of such a logic (as in
[1.146]), which is not a relevance logic, may be outlined as follows: Let
M=͗W, R, w*, v͘ be a semantic interpretation of a formal system, with W
an index set of possible worlds, wi, R a binary relation on W, w* the actual
world, and v a valuation of the propositional constants, i.e. a map from
W×P (with P the set of propositional constants) into {{1}, {0}, {1, 0}}, the set
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of truth values. (More naturally, we write v(w, α) = x as vw (α)=x and read
‘1ʦvw(α)’ as ‘α is true under v at w’ and ‘0ʦvw(α)’ as ‘α is false under v at
w’.) Valuation v can then be extended to all well-formed formulas as
follows:
Definitions of semantic consequence and logical truth are then introduced
in the standard way:
Σ ͦ= α iff for all interpretations, M, it is true of the evaluation, v,
that
if .
ͦ= α iff for all interpretations, M, itis true of the evaluation, v, that
Given these semantics, some rules of inference, such as disjunctive
syllogism (P Q, ¬ P+Q), fail. As a result, the logic turns out to be
paraconsistent in just the sense outlined above.
Other competing logics include combinatory logic (a variable-free branch
of logic which contains functions capable of playing the role of variables in
ordinary logic); free logics (logics in which it is not assumed that names
successfully refer, hence logics which do not make the kind of existence
assumptions normally associated with classical logic); many-valued logics
(logics which countenance more than the two possible classical truth values,
truth and falsity; historically, such logics have been motivated by the problem
of future contingents, the problem first raised by Aristotle but popularized by
Lukasiewicz of determining whether contingent statements concerning
future states have truth values prior to the time to which they refer); and
quantum logics (logics designed to take account of the unusual entailment
relations between propositions in theories of contemporary quantum
physics; hence, a logic in which the law of distributivity fails).
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In contrast to the above logics, extensions of first-order logic typically
have as their goal the construction of a broader, more inclusive type of
consequence relation than that found in classical logic. Formal extensions,
such as modal extensions of both prepositional and predicate logic, do so
by expanding the concept of formal entailment to include a class of
formally valid arguments in addition to those of first-order logic. In
contrast, informal extensions do so by expanding the concept of validity
to include informal (or material) validity in addition to formal validity.
Finally, inductive or non-monotonic extensions do so by expanding the
concept of consequence to include, not just entailments, but implications,
corroborations, and confirmations as well. Thus it is that logic (in the
broad sense) has come to include, not just theories of formal entailment
relations, but probability theory, confirmation theory, decision theory,
game theory and theories of epistemic modelling as well.
Among the most important extensions to classical logic are the modal
extensions. These are extensions emphasizing inferential relations
resulting from the alethic modalities, including necessity, possibility,
impossibility and contingency. Such logics are obtained from classical
prepositional or predicate logic by the addition of axioms and rules of
inference governing operators such as ٗ and in ‘ٗ p’ (‘it is necessary
that p’) and ‘ p’ (‘it is possible that p’). The weakest logic generally
thought to count as a modal logic in this sense is a logic introduced by
Robert Feys (b. 1889) in 1937, system T. A standard axiomatization
consists of the axioms and rules of inference for classical propositional
logic, together with several definitions (including the definition that
p=df ~ٗ~ p), the rule of necessitation (to the effect that if p is a theorem, so
is ٗ p), and the following axioms:
1 ٗ p→p
2 ٗ (p→q)→(ٗ p→ٗq).
Additional modal systems, including the 1932 systems S1 to S5,
introduced by Lewis and C.H.Langford (1895–1964), are normally
developed as extensions of T[1.37]. Since a formula, p, is said to strictly
imply another formula, q, if and only if it is not possible that both p and
~q, modal logics may be viewed either extensionally as a type of many-
valued logic or intensionally as a theory of strict implication. The
standard possible world semantics for such logics (in which a
proposition is necessary if and only if it is true in all possible worlds,
impossible if and only if it is true in no possible world, possible if and
only if it is true in at least one possible world, and so on) was developed
by Saul Kripke (b. 1940).
Like modal logics, epistemic logics (logics emphasizing inferential
relations and entailments which result from epistemic properties of
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sentences) may be obtained from classical prepositional or predicate logic
by the addition of axioms and rules of inference governing operators such
as K and B in ‘Kp’ (‘it is known that p’) and ‘Bp’ (‘it is believed that p’).
Similarly, deontic logics (logics emphasizing inferential relations and
entailments which result from deontic properties of sentences) may be
obtained by the addition of axioms and rules of inference governing
operators such as O and P in ‘Op’ (‘it ought to be the case that p’) and ‘Pp’
(‘it is permissible that p’).
Other extensions include counterfactual logics (logics which are
primarily concerned with conditional sentences containing false
antecedents); erotetic or interrogative logics (logics emphasizing
inferential relations and entailments pertaining to questions and
answers); fuzzy logics (logics concerned with imprecise information, such
as information conveyed through vague predicates or information
associated with so-called fuzzy sets, sets in which membership is a matter
of degree); imperative logics (logics emphasizing inferential relations and
entailments which result from imperatives); mereology (the formal study
of inferences and entailments which result from the relationship of whole
and part); theories of multigrade connectives (logics whose connectives
fail to take a fixed number of arguments); plurality, pleonotetic or
plurative logics (logics emphasizing inferential relations and entailments
pertaining to relations of quantity and involving plurality quantifiers
such as ‘most’ and ‘few’); preference logics (logics emphasizing inferential
relations and entailments which result from preferences); second-order
and higher-order logics (logics carried out in higher-order languages in
which quantifiers and functions are allowed to range over properties and
functions as well as over individual i.e. individuals); and tense or
temporal logics (logics designed to be sensitive to the tense of sentences
and to the changing truth values of sentences over time).
In contrast to the above logics, informal logic is the study of arguments
whose validity (or inductive strength) depends upon the material content,
rather than the form or structure, of their component statements or
propositions. (The logical form of a sentence or argument is obtained by
making explicit the expression’s logical constants and then by substituting
free variables for its non-logical constants; logical form is thus typically
contrasted with the material content—or subject matter—of the non-
logical constants for which the free variables are substituted.) Such logics
are extensions of formal logic in that they recognize the significance of
formal validity, but also recognize the existence of valid arguments which
are not instances of valid argument forms. Thus the argument from ‘If
Hume is a male parent then Hume is a father’ and ‘Hume is a father’ to
‘Hume is a male parent’, although valid, is not formally so. In fact, far
from being formally valid, it is an instance of the invalid argument form of
affirming the consequent. Since all so-called invalid argument forms have
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valid arguments as uniform substitution instances, the claim is made that
formal characterizations alone will never be able to capture completely
the concepts of either validity or invalidity.
Finally, mention should be made of formal systems which expand the
traditional consequence relation by weakening it to a relation which is
less than that of a valid inference. Such systems include inductive and
non-monotonic logics, as well as theories of probability and
confirmation. All such systems are concerned with so-called ampliative
arguments, arguments whose conclusions in some important sense go
beyond the information contained in their premisses. Such arguments
are defeasible in the sense that their premisses fail to provide conclusive
evidence for their conclusions and, hence, allow for the later
overturning or revision of a conclusion. Ampliative arguments include
both inductive inferences and inferences to the best explanation. They
may be either acceptable or unacceptable depending upon their
(inductive or probabilistic) strength or weakness. Similarly,
confirmation theories evaluate the degree to which evidence supports
(or confirms) a given hypothesis, emphasizing the rational degree of
confidence that a cognitive agent should have in favour of a hypothesis
given some body of evidence.
Such theories are typically (but not always) based upon probability
theory, the mathematical theory of the acceptability of a statement or
proposition, or of its likelihood. The standard account, first axiomatized
in 1933 by Andrej Kolmogorov (b. 1903) [1.160], can be summarized as
follows: Given sentences s and t, probability is a real-valued function, Pr,
such that
1 Pr(s)Ն0,
2 Pr(t)=1, if t is a tautology
3 Pr(svt)=Pr(s)+Pr(t), provided that s and t are mutually exclusive
(i.e. ~(s & t))
4 Pr(s|t)=Pr(s & t)/Pr(s), provided that Pr(s) 0.
Default logics, which permit the acceptance or rejection of certain types of
default inferences in the absence of information to the contrary, provide
one type of non-monotonic alternative to probabilistic theories.
Defeasible theories often give rise to so-called ‘applied logics’,
including theories of belief revision and theories of practical rationality.
Theories of belief revision (for example in [1.123]) are typically designed
in such a way as to model changes in one’s belief set which come about
both as a result of the acceptance of new beliefs and the revision of old
beliefs. Thus, if K is a consistent belief set closed under logical
consequence, then for any well-formed sentence, S, one of the following
three cases will obtain:
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1 S is accepted, i.e. SʦK (and ~S K);
2 S is rejected, i.e. ~SʦK(and S K); or
3 S is indetermined, i.e. S K and ~S K.
Epistemic changes may then be of any of the following three types:
1 Expansions: given that S is indetermined, either accept S (and its
consequences) or accept ~S (and its consequences);
2 Contractions: given that S is accepted (or that ~S is accepted, i.e. S is
rejected), conclude that S is indetermined;
3 Revisions: given that S is accepted (or that ~S is accepted, i.e. S is
rejected), conclude that S is rejected (or that ~S is rejected, i.e. S is
accepted).
Theories of practical rationality (for example in [1.159]) typically include
both decision theory (the theory of choice selection under various
conditions of risk and uncertainty, given that each option has associated
with it an expected probability distribution of outcomes, gains and
losses), and game theory (the theory of choice selection by two or more
agents or players when the outcome is a function, not just of one’s own
choice or strategy, but of the choices or strategies of other agents as well).
Such theories may be either bounded or not, depending upon whether
they take account of possible cognitive limitations of the decision-makers.
NOTES
1 [1.44], vii.
2 Quoted in [1.84], 2.
3 [1.941], 85.
4 [1.183], 1, 7.
5 [1.194], 1:217–18.
6 [1.194], 1:219.
7 Much the same difficulty is outlined by Cantor in a 1899 letter to Dedekind
(1899).
8 Quoted in [1.84], 125.
9 Quoted in [1.84], 127.
10 Or perhaps equivalently, that no collection can be definable only in terms of
itself. See [1.77], in [1.197], 63.
11 For example, see [1.177].
12 [1.65], in [1.62], 1:195.
13 [1.35], 185.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Logic Journals
1.1 Annals of Mathematical Logic
1.2 Annals of Pure and Applied Logic
1.3 Archive for Mathematical Logic
1.4 Argumentation
1.5 Bulletin of Symbolic Logic
1.6 History and Philosophy of Logic
1.7 Informal Logic
1.8 Journal of Logic and Computation
1.9 Journal of Logic, Language and Information
1.10 Journal of Logic Programming
1.11 Journal of Philosophical Logic
1.12 Journal of Symbolic Logic
1.13 Logic
1.14 Mathematical Logic Quarterly
1.15 Multiple-Valued Logic
1.16 Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic
1.17 Studia Logica
Formal Logic
1.18 Agazzi, E. Modern Logic-A Survey, Dordrecht, Reidel, 1981.
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1.21 Beth, E.W. The Foundations of Mathematics, Amsterdam, North-Holland,
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1.22 Bochenski, I.M. Formale Logik, 1956. Trans. as A History of Formal Logic,
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1.23 Boole, G. Collected Logical Works, 2 vols, La Salle, Ill., Open Court, 1952.
1.24 ——The Laws of Thought, London, Walton and Maberley, 1854.
1.25 Church, A. Introduction to Mathematical Logic, vol. 1, Princeton,
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1.26 Frege, G.Begriffsschrift, 1879, Trans. in J. van Heijenoort, From Frege to
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1.28
——Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, 2 vols, 1893, 1903. Abridged and
trans. as The Basic Laws of Arithmetic, Berkeley, University of
California Press, 1964.
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1.29 Grzegorczyk, A. An Outline of Mathematical Logic, Dordrecht, Reidel,
1974.
1.30 Hilbert, D.Grundlagen der Geometrie, 1899. Trans. as Foundations of
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1.31 Hilbert, D. and Ackermann, W. Gmndziige der theoretischen Logik, 1928.
Trans. as Principles of Mathematical Logic, New York, Chelsea, 1950.
1.32 Hilbert, D. and Bernays, P. Grundlagen der Mathematik, 2 vols, Berlin,
Springer, 1934, 1939.
1.33 Jordan, Z. The Development of Mathematical Logic and of Logical Positivism in
Poland Between the Two Wars, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1945.
1.34 Jourdain, P.E.B. ‘The Development of the Theories of Mathematical
Logic and the Principles of Mathematics’, Quarterly Journal of Pure
and Applied Mathematics 43 (1912): 219–314.
1.35 Kneale, W. and Kneale, M. The Development of Logic, Oxford, Clarendon
Press, 1962.
1.36 Lewis, C.I. A Survey of Symbolic Logic, Berkeley, University of California
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1.37 Lewis, C.I. and Langford, C.H.Symbolic Logic, New York, Dover, 1932;
2nd edn, 1959.
1.38 McCall, S. (ed.) Polish Logic 1920–1939, Oxford, Clarendon, 1967.
1.39 Mendelson, E. Introduction to Mathematical Logic, London, Van
Nostrand, 1964.
1.40 Mostowski, A. Thirty Years of Foundational Studies, New York, Barnes
and Noble, 1966.
1.41 Nidditch, P.H. The Development of Mathematical Logic, London,
Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1962.
1.42 Peano, G. Arithmetices Principia, 1889. Trans. as ‘The Principles of
Arithmetic’, in J. van Heijenoort, From Frege to Gödel, Cambridge,
Mass., Harvard University Press, 1967, pp. 85–97.
1.43 Quine, W.V. Mathematical Logic, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University
Press, 1940; rev. edn, 1951.
1.44 ——Methods of Logic, New York, Holt, 1950; 3rd edn, 1972.
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1.46 Russell, B. The Principles of Mathematics, London, George Allen and
Unwin, 1903; 2nd edn, 1937.
1.47 Shoenfield, J.R. Mathematical Logic, Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley,
1967.
1.48 Suppes, P.C. Introduction to Logic, London, Van Nostrand, 1957.
1.49 Whitehead, A.N. and Russell, B. Principia Mathematica, 3 vols, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1910, 1911, 1913; 2nd edn, 1927.
Metalogic
1.50 Barendregt, H.P. The Lambda Calculus, Amsterdam, North-Holland,
1981.
1.51 Barwise, J. and Feferman, S. (eds) Model-Theoretic Logics, New York,
Springer-Verlag, 1985.
1.52 Bell, J.L. and Slomson, A.B. Models and Ultraproducts, Amsterdam,
North-Holland, 1969.
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1.53 Carnap, R. Foundations of Logic and Mathematics, Chicago, University of
Chicago Press, 1939.
1.54 Chang, C.C. and Keisler, H.J. Model Theory, Amsterdam, North-
Holland, 1973; 3rd edn, 1990.
1.55 Church, A. ‘A Note on the Entscheidungsproblem’, Journal of Symbolic
Logic 1 (1936): 40–1, 101–2.
1.56 Davis, M. Computability and Unsolvability, New York, McGraw-Hill,
1958.
1.57 ——(ed.) The Undecidable, Hewlett, N.Y., Raven, 1965.
1.58 Friedman, H. ‘Higher Set Theory and Mathematical Practice’, Annals of
Mathematical Logic 2 (1971):325–57.
1.59 ——‘On the Necessary Use of Abstract Set Theory’, Advances in
Mathematics 41 (1981):209–80.
1.60 Gentzen, G. The Collected Works of Gerhard Gentzen, Amsterdam, North-
Holland, 1969.
1.61 Girard, J.Y. Proof Theory and Logical Complexity, vol. 1, Napoli,
Bibliopolis, 1987.
1.62 Gödel, K. Collected Works, 4 vols, Oxford, Oxford University Press,
1986-forthcoming.
1.63 ——The Consistency of the Axiom of Choice and of the Generalized
Continuum Hypothesis with the Axioms of Set Theory, London, Oxford
University Press, 1940; rev. edn, 1953. Repr. in K.Gödel, Collected
Works, vol. 2, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 33–101.
1.64 ——‘Die Vollständigkeit der Axiome des logischen Funktionenküls’,
1930. Trans. as ‘The Completeness of the Axioms of the Functional
Calculus of Logic’, in K.Gödel, Collected Works, vol. 1, Oxford,
Oxford University Press, 1986, pp. 103–23, and in J. van Heijenoort,
From Frege to Gödel, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press,
1967, pp. 583–91.
1.65 ——‘Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze der Principia mathematica und
verwandter Systeme I’, 1931. Trans. as ‘On Formally Undecidable
Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems I’, in
K.Gödel, Collected Works, vol. 1, Oxford, Oxford University Press,
1986, pp. 144–95, and in J. van Heijenoort, From Frege to Gödel,
Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1967, pp. 596–616.
1.66 Harrington, L.A., Morley, M.D., Scedrov, A. and Simpson, S.G. (eds)
Harvey Friedman’s Research on the Foundations of Mathematics,
Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1985.
1.67 Hilbert, D. and Bernays, P. Grundlagen der Mathematik, 2 vols, Berlin,
Springer, 1934, 1939.
1.68 Keisler, H.J. Model Theory for Infinitory Logic Amsterdam, North-
Holland, 1971.
1.69 Kleene, S.C. Introduction to Metamathematics, Amsterdam, North-
Holland, 1967.
1.70 Morley, M.D. ‘On Theories Categorical in Uncountable Powers’,
Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 48 (1962):365–77.
1.71 ——(ed.) Studies in Model Theory, Providence, R.I, American
Mathematical Society, 1973.
1.72 Mostowski, A. Sentences Undecidable in Formalized Arithmeric,
Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1952.
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1.73 Robinson, A. Introduction to Model Theory and to the Metamathematics of
Algebra, Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1963.
1.74 Rosser, J.B. ‘Extensions of Some Theorems of Gödel and Church’,
Journal of Symbolic Logic 1 (1936):87–91.
1.75 ——‘Gödel’s Theorems for Non-Constructive Logics’, Journal of
Symbolic Logic 2 (1937):129–37.
1.76 ——Simplified Independence Proofs, New York, Academic Press, 1969.
1.77 Russell, B. ‘Mathematical Logic as Based on the Theory of Types’,
American Journal of Mathematics 30 (1908): 222–62. Repr. in B.Russell,
Logic and Knowledge, London, Allen and Unwin, 1956, pp. 59–102,
and in J.van Heijenoort, From Frege to Gödel, Cambridge, Mass.,
Harvard University Press, 1967, pp. 152–82.
1.78 Shoenfield, J.R. Degrees of Unsolvability, Amsterdam, North-Holland,
1971.
1.79 Skolem, T. ‘Logisch-kombinatorische Untersuchungen über die
Erfüllbarkeit und Beweisbarkeit mathematischen Sätze nebst einem
Theoreme über dichte Mengen’, 1920. Trans. as ‘Logico-
Combinatorial Investigations in the Satisfiability or Provability of
Mathematical Propositions’, in J.van Heijenoort, From Frege to Gödel,
Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1967, pp. 254–63.
1.80 ——Selected Works in Logic, Oslo, Universitetsforlaget, 1970.
1.81 Tarski, A. Logic, Semantics, Metamathematics, Oxford, Clarendon, 1956.
1.82 Tarski, A., Mostowski, A. and Robinson, R.M. Undecidable Theories,
Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1969.
1.83 Turing, A.M. ‘Computability and -Definability’, Journal of Symbolic
Logic 2 (1937):153–63.
1.84 van Heijenoort, J. (ed.) From Frege to Gödel, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard
University Press, 1967.
Logic and Computability
1.85 Abramsky, S., Gabbay, D.M. and Maibaum, T.S.E. (eds) Handbook of
Logic in Computer Science, Oxford, Clarendon, 1992.
1.86 Boolos, G.S. and Jeffrey, R.C. Computability and Logic, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1974; 3rd edn, 1989.
1.87 Cook, S. ‘The Complexity of Theorem Proving Procedures’, in
Proceedings of the Third Annual ACM Symposium on the Theory of
Computing, New York, Association of Computing Machinery, 1971.
1.88 Gabbay, D.M., Hogger, C.J. and Robinson, J.A. (eds) Handbook of Logic
in Artificial Intelligence and Logic Programming, Oxford, Clarendon,
1993.
1.89 Garey, M.R. and Johnson, D.S. Computers and Intractability, New York,
Freeman, 1979.
1.90 Rogers, H. Theory of Recursive Functions and Effective Computability,
New York, McGraw-Hill, 1967.
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Set Theory
1.91
1.92
1.93
1.94
1.95
1.96
1.97
1.98
1.99
1.100
1.101
1.102
1.103
1.104
Aczel, P. Non-Well-founded Sets, Stanford, Center for the Study of
Language and Information, 1988.
Bernays, P. Axiomatic Set Theory, Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1958.
Cantor, G. ‘Beiträge zur Begründung der transfiniten Mengenlehre’,
Mathematische Annalen 46 (1895):481–512; 49 (1897):207–46.
——Contributions to the Founding of the Theory of Transfinite Numbers, La
Salle, Ill., Open Court, 1952.
Cohen, P.J. Set Theory and the Continuum Hypothesis, New York, W.A.
Benjamin, 1966.
Fraenkel, A.A., Abstract Set Theory, Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1954;
3rd edn, 1965.
Fraenkel, A.A., Bar-Hillel, Y. and Levy, A. Foundations of Set Theory,
Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1973.
Hallett, M. Cantorian Set Theory and Limitation of Size, Oxford,
Clarendon, 1984.
Moore, G.H. Zermelo’s Axiom of Choice, New York, Springer, 1982.
Mostowski, A. Constructible Sets with Applications, Amsterdam, North-
Holland, 1969.
Quine, W.V. Set Theory and Its Logic, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard
University Press, 1963.
Stoll, R.R. Set Theory and Logic, New York, Dover, 1961.
Suppes, P.C. Axiomatic Set Theory, London, Van Nostrand, 1960.
Zermelo, E. ‘Investigations in the Foundations of Set Theory I’, 1908,
trans. in J. van Heijenoort, From Frege to Gödel, Cambridge, Mass.,
Harvard University Press, 1967, pp. 200–15.
Category Theory
1.105
1.106
1.107
1.108
Bell, J.L. Toposes and Local Set Theories, Oxford, Clarendon, 1988.
Lawvere, W. ‘The Category of Categories as a Foundation for
Mathematics’, in Proceedings of La Jolla Conference on Categorical
Algebra, New York, Springer-Verlag, 1966, pp. 1–20.
Mac Lane, S. Categories for the Working Mathematician, Berlin, Springer,
1972.
Pierce, B.C. Basic Category Theory for Computer Scientists, Cambridge,
Mass., MIT Press, 1991.
Non-classical Logics
General
1.109 Haack S., Deviant Logic, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1974.
1.110 Rescher, N. Topics in Philosophical Logic, Dordrecht, Reidel, 1968.
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Combinatory Logic
1.111
1.112
Church, A. The Calculi of Lambda-conversion, Princeton, Princeton
University Press, 1941; 2nd edn, 1951.
Curry, H.B. and Feys, R. Combinatory Logic, 2 vols, Amsterdam, North-
Holland, 1958.
Logic of Counterfactuals
1.113
1.114
1.115
1.116
Chisholm, R.M. ‘The Contrary-to-Fact Conditional’, Mind 55 (1946):
289–307.
Goodman, N. ‘The Problem of Counterfactual Conditionals’, Journal of
Philosophy 44 (1947):113–28.
Harper, W.L., Stalnaker, R. and Pearce, G. (eds) Ifs, Dordrecht, Reidel,
1981.
Lewis, D. Counterfactuals, Oxford, Blackwell, 1973.
Deontic Logic and Logic of Imperatives
1.117
1.118
1.119
1.120
Fitch, F.B. ‘Natural Deduction Rules for Obligation’, American
Philosophical Quarterly 3 (1966):27–38.
Rescher, N. The Logic of Commands, London, Routledge and Kegan
Paul, 1966.
von Wright, G.H. Norm and Action, London, Routledge and Kegan
Paul, 1963.
——An Essay in Deontic Logic and the General Theory of Action,
Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1968.
Epistemic and Dynamic Logics
1.121
1.122
1.123
1.124
1.125
Chisholm, R.M. ‘The Logic of Knowing’, Journal of Philosophy 60 (1963):
773–95.
Forrest, P. The Dynamics of Belief, New York, Blackwell, 1986.
Gärdenfors, P. Knowledge in Flux, Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 1988.
Hintikka, K.J.J. Knowledge and Belief, Ithaca, Cornell University Press,
1962.
Schlesinger, G.N. The Range of Epistemic Logic, Aberdeen, Aberdeen
University Press, 1985.
Fuzzy Logic
1.126 McNeill, D. and Freiberger, P. Fuzzy Logic, New York, Simon and
Schuster, 1993.
1.127 Zadeh, L. ‘Fuzzy Logic and Approximate Reasoning’, Synthese 30
(1975): 407–28.
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Interrogative Logic
1.128 Aqvist, L. A New Approach to the Logical Theory of Interrogatives,
Uppsala, University of Uppsala Press, 1965.
1.129 Belnap, N.D. and Steel, T.B. The Logic of Questions and Answers, New
Haven, Yale University Press, 1976.
Intuitionistic and Constructive Logics
1.130
1.131
1.132
1.133
1.134
1.135
1.136
1.137
Beeson, M.J. Foundations of Constructive Mathematics, Berlin, Springer,
1985.
Bishop, E. Foundations of Constructive Analysis, New York, McGraw-
Hill, 1967.
Bishop, E. and Bridges, D. Constructive Analysis, Berlin, Springer, 1985.
Bridges, D. Varieties of Constructive Mathematics, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1987.
Brouwer, L.E.J. Collected Works, Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1975.
Dummett, M. Elements of Intuitionism, Oxford, Oxford University Press,
1978.
Heyting, A. Intuitionism, Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1956; 3rd edn,
1971.
——Constructivity in Mathematics, Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1959.
Many-valued Logic
1.138 Rescher, N. Many-Valued Logic, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1969.
Mereology
1.139 Leonard, H. and Goodman, N. ‘The Calculus of Individuals and its
Uses’. Journal of Symbolic Logic 5 (1940):45–55.
1.140 Luschei, E.C. The Logical Systems of Lesniewski, Amsterdam, North-
Holland, 1962.
Modal Logic
1.141
1.142
1.143
1.144
Chellas, B.F. Modal Logic, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
1980.
Hughes, G.E. and Cresswell, M.J. An Introduction to Modal Logic,
London, Methuen, 1968.
Lewis, C.I. ‘Alternative Systems of Logic’, Monist 42 (1932):481–507.
Loux, M.J. The Possible and the Actual, Ithaca, Cornell University Press
1979.
Non-consistent and Paraconsistent Logic
1.145 Brandom, R. and Rescher, N. The Logic of Inconsistency, Totawa, N.J.
Rowman and Littlefield, 1979.
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1.146 Priest, G. In Contradiction, Dordrecht, Martinus Nijhoff, 1987.
1.147 Priest, G., Routley, R. and Norman, J. (eds) Paraconsistent Logic,
Munich, Philosophia Verlag, 1989.
Non-monotonic and Inductive Logic
1.148
1.149
1.150
1.151
1.152
1.153
Besnard, P. An Introduction to Default Logic, New York, Springer-Verlag,
1989.
Ginsberg, M.L. (ed.) Readings in Nonmonotonic Reasoning, Los Altos,
Cal., Morgan Kaufmann, 1987.
Hintikka, J. and Suppes, P. (eds) Aspects of Inductive Logic, Amsterdam,
North-Holland, 1966.
Jeffrey, R.C. (ed.) Studies in Inductive Logic and Probability, 2 vols,
Berkeley, University of California Press, 1980.
Popper, K.R. Logik der Forschung, 1935. Trans. as The Logic of Scientific
Discovery, London, Hutchinson, 1959.
Shafer, G. and Pearl, J. (eds) Readings in Uncertain Reasoning, San
Mateo, Cal., Morgan Kaufmann, 1990.
Preference Logic
1.154 Rescher, N. Introduction to Value Theory, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,
Prentice-Hall, 1969.
1.155 von Wright, G.H. Logic of Preference, Edinburgh, Edinburgh University
Press, 1963.
Probability and Decision Theory
1.156
1.157
1.158
1.159
1.160
Campbell, R. and Sowden, L. (eds) Paradoxes of Rationality and
Cooperation, Vancouver, University of British Columbia Press, 1985.
Carnap, R. Logical Foundations of Probability, Chicago, University of
Chicago Press, 1950; 2nd edn, 1962.
Hacking, I. Logic of Statistical Inference, Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1965.
Jeffrey, R.C. The Logic of Decision, Chicago, University of Chicago Press,
1965; 2nd edn, 1983.
Kolmogorov, A.N. Grundbegriffe der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung, 1933.
Trans. as Foundations of the Theory of Probability, New York, Chelsea,
1950.
Quantum Logic
1.161 Gibbins, P. Particles and Paradoxes, Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press, 1987.
1.162 Putnam, H. ‘Is Logic Empirical?’, in R.Cohen and M.Wartofsky (eds),
Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol. 5, Dordrecht, Reidel,
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1969, pp. 216–41. Repr. as ‘The Logic of Quantum Mechanics’, in
H.Putnam, Mathematics, Matter and Method, Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1975, pp. 174–97.
Relevance Logic
1.163 Anderson, A.R. and Belnap, N.D. Entailment, 2 vols, Princeton,
Princeton University Press, 1975, 1992.
1.164 Read, S. Relevant Logic, New York, Blackwell, 1988.
Temporal Logic
1.165 Prior, A.N. Time and Modality, Oxford, Clarendon, 1957.
1.166 ——Past, Present and Future, Oxford, Clarendon, 1967.
1.167 Rescher, N. and Urquhart, A. Temporal Logic, New York, Springer-
Verlag, 1971.
Informal Logic and Critical Reasoning
1.168
1.169
1.170
1.171
Hamblin, C.L. Fallacies, London, Methuen, 1970.
Hansen, H.V. and Pinto, R.C. (eds) Fallacies: Classical and Contemporary
Readings, University Park, Pa, Pennsylvania State University Press,
1995.
Massey, G.J. ‘The Fallacy Behind Fallacies’, in P.A.French, T.E.Uehling,
Jr and H.K.Wettstein (eds) Midwest Studies in Philosophy, Vol. 6—The
Foundations of Analytic Philosophy, Minneapolis, University of
Minnesota Press, 1981, pp. 489–500.
Woods, J. and Walton, D. Argument, The Logic of the Fallacies, Toronto,
McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1982.
Philosophy of Logic
1.172
1.173
1.174
1.175
1.176
1.177
1.178
Barwise, J. and Etchemendy, J. The Liar, Oxford, Oxford University
Press, 1987.
Carnap, R. Introduction to Semantics, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard
University Press, 1942.
——Meaning and Necessity, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1947;
2nd edn, 1956.
Davidson, D. and Harman, G. (eds) Semantics of Natural Language,
Dordrecht, Reidel, 1972.
Davidson, D. and Hintikka, J. (eds) Words and Objections, Dordrecht,
Reidel, 1969.
Detlefsen, M. Hilbert’s Program, Dordrecht, Reidel, 1986.
Field, H. ‘Tarski’s Theory of Truth’, Journal of Philosophy 69
(1972):347–75.
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1.179
1.180
1.181
1.182
1.183
1.184
1.185
1.186
1.187
1.188
1.189
1.190
1.191
1.192
1.193
1.194
1.195
1.196
1.197
1.198
1.199
1.200
1.201
1.202
1.203
Gabbay, D. and Guenthner, F. (eds) Handbook of Philosophical Logic, 4
vols, Dordrecht, Reidel, 1983, 1984, 1986, 1989.
Haack, S. Philosophy of Logics, Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press, 1978.
Hahn, L.E. and Schilpp, P.A. (eds) The Philosophy of W.V.Quine, La Salle,
Ill., Open Court, 1986.
Herzberger, H.A. ‘Paradoxes of Grounding in Semantics’, Journal of
Philosophy 67 (1970):145–67.
Hilber, D. ‘Mathematische Probleme’, 1900. Trans. as ‘Mathematical
Problems’, in Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 8
(1902):437–79. Repr. in F.E.Browder (ed.) Mathematical Developments
Arising from Hilbert Problems (Proceedings of Symposia in Pure
Mathematics, vol. 28), Providence, American Mathematical Society,
1976, pp. 1–34.
Irvine, A.D. and Wedeking, G.A. (eds) Russell and Analytic Philosophy,
Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1993.
Kripke, S.A. ‘Naming and Necessity’, in D.Davidson and G.Harman
(eds) Semantics of Natural Language, Dordrecht, Reidel, 1972, pp.
253–355, 763–69. Repr. as Naming and Necessity, Cambridge, Mass.,
Harvard University Press, 1980.
——‘Outline of a Theory of Truth’, Journal of Philosophy 72 (1975), 690–
716.
Linsky, L. (ed.) Reference and Modality, London, Oxford University
Press, 1971.
Martin, R.L. (ed.) Recent Essays on Truth and the Liar Paradox, Oxford,
Clarendon, 1984.
Putman, H. Philosophy of Logic, New York, Harper and Row, 1971.
Quine, W.V. From a Logical Point of View, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard
University Press, 1953; 2nd edn, 1961.
——Philosophy of Logic, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press,
1970; 2nd edn, 1986.
——Pursuit of Truth, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press,
1990.
——Word and Object, Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 1960.
Russell, B. The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, 3 vols, London, George
Allen and Unwin, 1967, 1968, 1969.
——The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell, London, Routledge, 1983–
forthcoming.
——Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy, London, George Allen and
Unwin, 1919.
——Logic and Knowledge, London, George Allen and Unwin, 1956.
Sainsbury, M. Logical Forms, Oxford, Blackwell, 1991.
Schilpp, P.A. (ed.) The Philosophy of Bertrand Russell, Evanston,
Northwestern University Press, 1944; 3rd edn, New York, Harper
and Row, 1963.
——The Philosophy of Karl Popper, La Salle, Ill., Open Court, 1974.
——The Philosophy of Rudolf Carnap, La Salle, Ill., Open Court, 1963.
Strawson, P.F. Logico-Linguistic Papers, London, Methuen, 1971.
Tarski, A. Logic, Semantics, Metamathematics, Oxford, Oxford University
Press, 1956.
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1.204
1.205
1.206
——‘On Undecidable Statements in Enlarged Systems of Logic and the
Concept of Truth’, Journal of Symbolic Logic 4 (1939):105–12.
——‘The Semantic Conception of Truth and the Foundations of
Semantics’, Journal of Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 4
(1944):341–75. Repr. in H.Feigl and W.Sellars, Readings in
Philosophical Analysis, New York , Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1949,
52–84.
Wittgenstein, L. Logisch-Philosophische Abhandlung, 1921. Trans. as
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul,
1961.
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CHAPTER 2
Philosophy of mathematics in
the twentieth century
Michael Detlefsen
INTRODUCTION
Philosophy of mathematics in the twentieth century has primarily been
shaped by three influences. The first of these is the work of Kant and,
especially, the problematic he laid down for the subject in the late
eighteenth century. The second is the reaction to Kant’s conception of
geometry that arose among nineteenth-century thinkers and which
centred first on the discovery of non-Euclidean geometries in the 1820s.
The third is the new discoveries in logic that emerged with increasing
rapidity and force during the latter half of the nineteenth century. In one
way or another, the main currents of twentieth-century philosophy of
mathematics—and, in particular, the so-called logicist, intuitionist and
formalist movements—are all attempts to reconcile Kant’s revolutionary
plan for mathematical epistemology with the equally revolutionary ideas
of Gauss, Bolyai and Lobatchevsky in geometry, and the powerful ideas
and techniques developed by Boole, Peirce, Peano, Frege and other
nineteenth-century figures in logic.
To understand twentieth-century philosophy of mathematics, it is
therefore necessary first to have some knowledge of Kant’s ideas and of
the ideas that were at the heart of the nineteenth-century reactions to his
views. We shall therefore devote the remainder of this introduction to
surveying these ideas.
We begin with Kant and the Problematik he established for
mathematical epistemology. This Problematik was focused on the
reconciliation of two apparently incompatible features of mathematical
thought: namely, its rich substantiality as a science, which gives it the
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appearance of something that arises from sources external to the human
intellect, and its apparent certainty or necessity, which gives it the
appearance of something that is independent of the one external source
which is best founded and understood—namely, sensory experience.
To resolve this difficulty, Kant formulated a theory of knowledge which
imported much of what had traditionally been thought of as information
arising from external sources (specifically, the basic spatial characteristics
of sensory thought, and the temporal characteristics of both sensory and
non-sensory thinking) into the human mind itself, representing it as the
product of certain deep, standing traits of human cognition. At the centre
of this theory was a certain conception of judgement which represented
the intersection of two different schemes for classifying propositions. On
the first of these, propositions were sorted according to the type of
knowledge of which they admitted; those which required sensory
experience were called a posteriori, those which did not were called a priori.
On the second, they were sorted according to whether or not their
predicate terms were contained in their subject terms (in the sense that
one thinking the subject term would, as a part of that very act itself, also
think the predicate term). Those judgements in which the subject term
contained the predicate term in this sense were to be called analytic. Those
in which no such containment obtained were either falsehoods, because
there was no connection between the subject and predicate concepts at all,
or they were synthetic truths. In true synthetic judgements, the subject and
predicate concepts were joined not by a relation of containment, but
rather by a relation of association. The association of a predicate with a
subject provided for their being thought together in tandem, though it did
not, like containment, require that a thinking of the predicate term of a
judgement be a constituent part of any thinking of its subject term (cf.
[2.58] for a good discussion of the Kantian doctrine of concepts,
specifically in relation to his conception of intuition).
Kant erected his mathematical epistemology upon these distinctions
between a priori and a posteriori and analytic and synthetic judgements.
He attempted to explain what he referred to as the ‘certainty’ or
‘necessity’ of mathematical judgements by showing that our knowledge
of them is a priori. Such knowledge, he argued, derives from two
standing capacities of the human mind. One of these, which Kant
referred to as our a priori intuition of space, was taken to function as a
formal constraint on sensory experience by forcing it to be represented
in a Euclidean space of three dimensions. The other, the so-called a
priori intuition of time, served formally to constrain both sensory and
non-sensory experience by representing it as temporally ordered. Both
the a priori intuition of space and the a priori intuition of time therefore
functioned to control the senses rather than the other way round. It was
because of this that Kant believed judgements arising from them (i.e. the
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judgements of geometry and arithmetic) to be impervious to
falsification by sensory experience.
This, in brief, was Kant’s proposal for accounting for the necessity of
mathematics. He proposed to account for its substantiality by
establishing that its judgements are synthetic rather than analytic in
character. If mathematical judgement is synthetic in character, then it
cannot be seen as consisting in the mere apprehension of a containment
relation between its subject and predicate concepts. Rather, it must be
seen as the fusion in thought of two analytically unrelated concepts
through one of two means: either the conjunction of concepts provided
for by repeated sensory experience, or the invariant and inevitable
association provided for by an a priori structuring of our minds in such
a way as to bring the two together in thought. Such a joining of
analytically unrelated concepts, in which the thinking of the predicate
concept is not, logically speaking, strictly required for the thinking of the
subject concept, was, in Kant’s view, the essential ingredient of
substantiality in judgement. This notion of analytically unrelated
concepts necessarily joined in thought enabled Kant to frame an account
of the substantiality of mathematical judgements which would allow
mathematical judgement to be necessary but, at the same time, not limit
the degree and kind of the informativeness of mathematical judgements
to the degree and kind of complexity that logical containment relations
are capable of displaying. In Kant’s estimation, this latter was a
limitation that it was important to avoid.
Kant adopted a similarly synthetic view of the nature of mathematical
reasoning. He maintained that mathematical (as opposed to logical or
analytical) inference possesses the same rich substantiality of character
that distinguishes mathematical from logical or analytical judgement. He
also argued (cf. [2.86], 741–7) that the connection between the premiss(es)
and conclusion of a mathematical inference calls for synthetic rather than
analytic means of bonding.
To illustrate the point, he elaborated upon an elementary case of
geometrical inference; namely, that inference in ordinary Euclidean
geometry which takes one from a premiss to the effect that a given figure
is a triangle to the conclusion that the sum of its interior angles is equal
to that of two right angles. He maintained (Ibid.) that no amount of
analysis of the concept of a triangle could ever reveal that its interior
angles sum to two right angles. Rather, he said, in order to arrive at such
a conclusion (i.e. a conclusion that extends our knowledge of triangles
beyond what is given in the definition of the concept itself) we must rely
primarily not on the definition of the concept, but on the means by which
triangles are presented to us in intuition. In other words, we must construct
a triangle in intuition (i.e. represent the object which ‘corresponds to’
[Ibid., p. 742] the concept of a triangle), and then extract the conclusion
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not from the mere concept of a triangle but rather from the universal
conditions governing the construction of triangles (Ibid., pp. 742, 744) in our
intuition. ‘In this fashion’, said Kant, the mathematical reasoner arrives at
his conclusion ‘through a chain of inferences guided throughout by
intuition’ (Ibid., p. 745).
These, in brief, are Kant’s proposals for the resolution of what he took
to be the central problems facing the philosophy of mathematics. But
though the problems themselves have remained a staple of twentieth-
century thinking on the subject, Kant’s particular proposals for their
resolution have not. What caused this decline in the popularity of Kant’s
ideas was, primarily, the emergence of challenges to his conception of
geometry and his view of the relation between geometry and arithmetic
that arose in the nineteenth century. It is to these ideas that we now turn,
beginning with geometry.
On Kant’s conception, geometry was the product of an a priori
intuition of space which specified the space in which human spatial
experience was ‘set’, so to speak. The character of this a priori visual space
was that spelled out in the Euclidean axioms for three-dimensional space.
In calling Euclidean three-dimensional space the space of human visual
experience, one does not mean, of course, that it is the only space that is
intelligible or logically coherent to the human mind. Visualizability is one
thing, intelligibility or logical coherence another. Kant’s position was that
Euclidean three-dimensional space is the only space that is visualizable by
humans (cf. [2.57] for a useful discussion of Kant’s view of geometry).
Not long after Kant elaborated his views in the Critique of Pure Reason,
mathematicians expressed doubts about them. Gauss, for example, clearly
stated his doubts concerning the a priori character of geometry in a letter
written in 1817 to Olbers (cf. [2.60], 651–2). He restated the same view in
an 1829 letter to Bessel (cf. [2.59], VIII:200) and added that it had been his
view for nearly 40 years. In (my translation of) his words:
My innermost conviction is that geometry has a completely
different position in our a priori knowledge than arithmetic…we
must humbly admit that, though number is purely a product of our
intellect, space also has a reality external to our intellect which
prohibits us from being able to give a complete specification of its
laws a priori.1
Later, in a letter written in 1832 to Bolyai’s father (cf. [2.59], VIII: 220–21),
he reiterated this view, saying that Bolyai’s results provided a proof of the
incorrectness of Kant’s views.
It is precisely in the impossibility of deciding a priori between Σ
[Euclidean geometry] and S [the younger Bolyai’s non-Euclidean
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geometry] that we have the clearest proof that Kant was wrong to
claim that space is only the form of our intuition. [Brackets and
translation mine]
There thus arose among nineteenth-century thinkers the belief (given
special impetus by the work of Bolyai and Lobatchevsky) that there are
fundamental epistemological differences between geometry and
arithmetic. Put briefly, the difference is that arithmetic is more and
geometry less central to human thought and reason. Arithmetic, on
this view, was taken to be wholly a product or creation of the human
intellect; geometry, on the other hand, was taken to be determined at
least in part by forces external to the human intellect. The difference
was implied by a broad epistemological principle (which we might
refer to as the creation principle) to the effect that what the mind creates
or produces of itself is better known to it than that which comes from
without.
Belief in the epistemological asymmetry of arithmetic and geometry
(though not necessarily Gauss’s particular conception of its character)
thus became a central tenet of nineteenth-century thinking concerning the
nature of mathematical knowledge. It also became a prime force shaping
the major movements of twentieth-century philosophy of mathematics. In
the main, two basic kinds of reactions emerged, corresponding to the two
basic ways of accommodating this asymmetry. One was to retain a
Kantian conception of arithmetic (as based on an a priori intuition of time)
and adopt a non-Kantian conception of geometry (as based on an a priori
intuition of space). The other was to take a non-Kantian view of arithmetic
while retaining a Kantian conception of geometry. The former of these
two tactics was essentially that which was adopted by the intuitionists
Brouwer and Weyl, while the latter became the central idea motivating the
logicism of Frege and Dedekind. Hilbert’s finitist programme, the third
main movement of twentieth-century philosophy of mathematics, in a
way adopted and in a way rejected both. It maintained both the
epistemological symmetry of arithmetic and geometry and their
fundamentally a priori character. It rejected, however, Kant’s proposed a
priori intuitions of space and time as their bases.
The powerful confirmation of belief in the epistemological
asymmetry of arithmetic and geometry that was provided by the
nineteenth-century discovery of non-Euclidean geometries was
therefore a major factor contributing to the decline of Kant’s positive
views in the philosophy of mathematics and the emergence of major
alternatives in the twentieth century. The second major factor
contributing to the weakening of Kant’s influence in twentieth-century
philosophy of mathematics was the dramatic development of logic
during the latter part of the nineteenth and the early part of the
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twentieth centuries. This included the introduction of algebraic methods
by Boole and DeMorgan, the improved treatment of relations by Peirce,
Schröder and Peano, the replacement of the Aristotelian analysis of form
based on the subject-predicate relation with the more fecund analysis of
form based on Frege’s general notion of a logical function, and the
advances in formalization brought about by the introduction (by Frege,
Russell and Whitehead, and Peano) of precisely defined and managed
symbolic languages and systems.2
These developments took logic to a point well beyond what it was in
the time of Kant, and this caused some to judge that it was the relatively
underdeveloped state of logic in Kant’s time that was primarily
responsible for his belief in the need for a synthetic basis for
mathematical judgment and inference. Russell, for one (cf. [2.120],
[2.123], [2.124]), took such a position, arguing that though Kant’s views
may have seemed reasonable given the sorry state of logic in his day,
they would never have been given a serious hearing had our knowledge
of logic been then what it is now. (N.B. But though Russell saw the
enrichment of the analysis of logical form brought about by the modern
logic of relations and the functional conception of the proposition as
being of particular importance to the correction of Kant’s deficiencies,
he also believed that certain developments in mathematics proper
were of great importance. Chief among these were (i) the
arithmetization of analysis by Weierstrass, Dedekind and others; and
(ii) the discovery by Peano of an axiomatization of arithmetic. These
led to what Russell regarded as a codification of pure mathematics
within a certain axiomatic system of arithmetic (viz. second-order
Peano arithmetic), and so provided for its ‘logicization’. Russell
reckoned the significance of these developments for Kant’s philosophy
of mathematics to be as great as that of the discovery of non-Euclidean
geometries (cf. [2.120], [2.123].)
For the most part, Russell’s views on these matters were taken over by
the logical empiricists, who, like Russell, were much impressed with the
new logic, and who were also attracted to a logicism like Russell’s,3
because it allowed them to resolve the difficulties that mathematics had
traditionally posed for empiricist epistemologies.4 The new logic, then,
in being seen as the basis for the working out of Russell’s sweeping form
of logicism, eventually led to the resurgence of empiricist
epistemologies for mathematics, and these, quite clearly, represented a
significant departure from Kantian mathematical epistemology. In
addition, it posed what has proven to be an enduring challenge to the
Kantian view that mathematical reasoning is essentially distinct from
logical reasoning.5
This completes our synopsis of the major influences shaping twentieth-
century philosophy of mathematics. The longer story, which we shall now
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tell in greater detail, is, for the most part, the story of the ebb and flow of
Kant’s ideas as they met and interacted with new developments in
geometry, logic, science and philosophy.
THE EARLY PERIOD AND THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE THREE ‘ISMS’
We begin our discussion with the first three decades (what we are
calling the ‘early period’), which, if it was not the most active
productive period, was certainly one of the most such in the entire
history of the subject. The major developments of this period were the
three great ‘isms’ of recent philosophy of mathematics: logicism,
intuitionism and (Hilbert’s) formalism. All of these, we shall argue,
were profoundly influenced by Kantian ideas. In the case of logicism,
however, one must take care to distinguish Frege’s from Russell’s
version. Frege’s had much closer ties to Kantian epistemology than did
Russell’s. Indeed, it attempted to retain many of Kant’s most important
ideas, including, as we shall see, certain of his ideas regarding the
nature of reason.
Logicism
Frege was moved by the discovery of non-Euclidean geometries, and
dedicated to the task of explaining what he took to be the main upshot of
this discovery—namely, the asymmetry between arithmetic and
geometry as regards their basicness to human thought. Geometrical
thinking, though widely applied in human thought, was not so widely
applied as to suggest that it is not based on a Kantian type of a priori
intuition. Thus, Frege supported Kant’s geometrical epistemology (cf.
[2.49], section 89). Arithmetic, on the other hand, was too pervasively
applicable in human thought to be ascribed plausibly to the working of a
similar faculty of intuition. No, its epistemological source must be
sought elsewhere—ultimately, as Frege saw it, in a reconceived faculty
of reason.
The basics of this viewpoint were evident in Frege’s writings from the
very start. Thus, already in his 1873 doctoral dissertation, he emphasized
that ‘the whole of geometry rests, in the final analysis, on principles that
derive their validity from the character of our intuition’ (cf. [2.46], 3, my
translation). And, in his 1874 Habilitationsschrift [2.47], he expanded this
observation to include his view of the relation between geometry and
arithmetic vis à vis their dependency on intuition.
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It is quite clear that there can be no intuition of so pervasive and
abstract a concept as that of magnitude (Größe). There is therefore
a noteworthy (bemerkenswerter) difference between geometry and
arithmetic concerning the way in which their basic laws are
grounded. The elements of all geometrical constructions are
intuitions, and geometry refers to intuition as the source of its
axioms. Because the object of arithmetic is not intuitable, it follows
that its basic laws cannot be based on intuition.6
The same basic point concerning the ‘unintuitedness’ of the objects of
arithmetic is made in the Grundlagen, where Frege remarks that:
In arithmetic we are not concerned with objects which we come to
know as something alien from without through the medium of the
senses, but with objects given directly to our reason and, as its
nearest kin, utterly transparent to it.
[2.49, Section 105]
The same basic contrast between geometry and arithmetic is drawn in
sections 13 and 14 of the Grundlagen [2.49]. There Frege broached the
question of the relative places occupied in our thinking by empirical,
geometrical, and arithmetical laws. His conclusion is that arithmetic
laws are deeper than geometrical laws, and geometrical laws deeper
than empirical laws. He arrives at this conclusion by conducting a
thought experiment in which he considers the cognitive damage that
one might expect to be done by denying each of the various kinds of
laws. Denying a geometrical law, he concludes, stands to do more
extensive damage to a person’s cognitive orientation than denying a
physical law. For it would lead to a conflict between what people can
conceive and what they can spatially intuit. It would bring severe
disorientation to a person’s cognition. It would force them, for example,
to deduce things that formerly they had been able just to ‘see’. And it
would even make the deductions strange and unfamiliar. It would not,
however, result in a global breakdown of their rational thinking. Such
global breakdown in one’s rational functioning is rather that which
would follow from a denial of arithmetical law. Denying an arithmetical
law would not only keep one from seeing what he had formerly been
able to see, it would, according to Frege, prohibit his engaging in
deduction or reasoning of any sort. In his words, it would bring about
‘complete confusion’, so that ‘even to think at all would seem no longer
possible’ (Ibid.).
Frege sought to explain this projected global breakdown in rational
thought by arguing that the scope of arithmetical law, unlike that of
physical and geometrical law, is universal. It governs not only that which
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is physically actual and that which is spatially intuitable, but, indeed, all
that which is numerable—and that, according to Frege, is the widest range
possible, extending to all that which is in any coherent way thinkable or
conceivable.7 The laws of arithmetic must, therefore, he concluded, ‘be
connected very intimately with the laws of thought’ (Ibid.)—that is, the
laws of logic.8
This alleged difference in the pervasiveness to thought of arithmetic
and geometry thus became, in Frege’s thinking, the (or at least a)
fundamental datum for the philosophy of mathematics. He also believed
it to be a datum Kant had overlooked. For, had he been aware of it, Frege
felt sure, Kant would never have tried, as he did, to stretch essentially the
same epistemology to cover both arithmetic and geometry. Rather, he
would have tried to do justice to the ‘observable’ differences in depth-to-
rational-thought of arithmetic and geometry.
Kant’s ultimate shortcoming, Frege believed, was that he had
acknowledged only two basic sources of knowledge—sensation and
understanding. This allowed room only for a distinction between
sensory and a priori knowledge. It did not allow for a distinction—at
least not a distinction of kind—between different subspecies of a priori
knowledge. Frege, on the other hand, distinguished between sensory
experience, the source of our knowledge of natural science, intuition,
the source of our geometrical knowledge, and reason (cf. [2.49],
sections 26, 105), which Frege described as the source of our
arithmetical knowledge. This modification of Kant’s general
epistemology was, Frege believed, necessary if one was to account for
the perceivable differences in the relative pervasiveness of arithmetic
and geometry.9
(N.B. Actually, it is not clear that Kant’s epistemology did not enable
him to do something of the same sort. Certainly it did distinguish two
types of experience (cf. [2.86], 37–53), ‘inner’ and ‘outer’, and noted that
the one (viz., inner) made use of intuitional resources (viz., the a priori
intuition of time) that are more pervasive than those (viz., the a priori
intuition of space) upon which the other is based. Adding to this the fact
that Kant maintained that arithmetical thinking is based on the more
pervasive intuition of time and geometrical thinking on the less pervasive
intuition of space, it would seem that the distinction between inner and
outer experience in Kant is capable of effecting something of at least the
same general kind of asymmetry between arithmetic and geometry that
Frege believed to be so important to mathematical epistemology. Frege
seems never to have considered this point.
We add this remark, however, mainly as an aside. For, clearly, there
are important differences between Frege and Kant concerning the
pervasiveness of arithmetic. Kant, for example, despite acknowledging
arithmetic to be widely applicable, none the less held it to be limited to
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that which is experienceable. He did not take it to apply to the whole of
what is (rationally) imaginable or conceivable. Consequently, though he
judged arithmetical law to be a priori in character, he also judged it to
be synthetic. Frege, on the other hand, believed arithmetic to apply to
all that is conceivable, and it was precisely in this departure from Kant
that he was led to regard it as analytic rather than synthetic in
character.)
Frege thus disagreed with Kant concerning the pervasiveness to
rational human thought of arithmetical thinking. This disagreement
cannot, however, be taken at face value in explaining why Kant held a
synthetic and Frege an analytic conception of arithmetic. For the two
employed different conceptions of the notions of analyticity and
syntheticity. Thus, to comprehend better the true differences separating
Kant and Frege, we must look more carefully at the definitions each used
in formulating the key notions of his position.
Kant defined an analytic truth as a truth in which the predicate
‘belongs to’ the subject as something ‘covertly contained’ in it, and a
synthetic truth as one that is not analytic (cf. [2.86], 9–11). He did not
characterize the analytic/synthetic distinction, as he did the a priori/a
posteriori distinction, in terms of the characters of the possible
justifications of a judgement. Frege, on the other hand, did exactly that.
In his scheme (cf. [2.49], sections 3, 17, 87–8), both the analytic/synthetic
and the a priori/a posteriori distinctions are parts of a classificatory
system regarding the different kinds of justifications a given judgement
might have.
Each truth, Frege believed, possesses a kind of canonical proof or
justification. This is a proof which, in its ultimate premisses, goes all the
way back to the ‘primitive truths’ of the subject to which the theorem
belongs. It gives ‘the ultimate ground upon which rests the justification
for holding [the theorem proven] to be true’ (Ibid., section 3). It thus
presupposes an ordering of truths, and its objective is precisely to retrieve
that segment of the given ordering which links the proposition to be
proven to those ur-truths of its subject which are responsible for its truth.
It aims, in other words, at revealing what might be called the grounds of
the proven proposition’s truth—its Leibnizian Sufficient Reason, as it were
(Ibid., sections 3, 17).
A proposition or judgement is said to be analytical, in this scheme, if its
canonical proof contains only ‘general logical laws’ and ‘definitions’
(Ibid., Section 3). It is said to be synthetic if its canonical proof contains at
least one premiss belonging to ‘some special science’ (Ibid.). It is
considered a posteriori if its canonical proof includes an ‘appeal to facts,
i.e. to truths which cannot be proved and are not general’ (Ibid.). And,
finally, it is considered to be a priori if its canonical proof uses exclusively
‘general laws, which themselves neither need nor admit of proof’ (Ibid.)
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(in other words, if knowledge of it can arise from the Fregean faculty of
reason alone).10
Frege believed that finding the canonical proofs of arithmetical truths
would reveal an intimate connection between them and the basic laws of
thought (i.e. the ‘general logical laws’).11 At the same time, however, he
was keenly aware of the Kantian objection to such a proposal; namely,
that it makes it difficult to account for the epistemic productivity or
substantiality of arithmetic. Indeed, immediately after having broached
the view that arithmetic is analytic in section 15 of the Grundlagen [2.49],
Frege went on in section 16 to note that the chief difficulty facing such
a view is to explain how ‘the great tree of the science of number as we
know it, towering, spreading, and still continually growing’ can
‘have its roots in bare identities’. He thus clearly saw his main task as
that of explaining how analytic judgement and analytic inference can
yield an epistemic product having the robustness that arithmetic
appears to have.
His response can be seen as divided into two parts. The first of these
consists in the giving of an account of the ‘objectivity’ of analytic
judgements that does not appeal to sensation or intuition. The second
concerns the more general problem of explaining how one might get a
conclusion that extends the knowledge represented by the premisses of an
inference out of premisses that can be inferentially manipulated only by
purely logical means.
Regarding the former, Frege’s idea was to ascribe special properties
to concepts, or to the objectively existing thoughts which, via the
context principle (the principle that it is only in the context of a
proposition (Satz) that words have meaning, cf. [2.49], section 60), are
prior to them. Numbers were then to be defined in terms of concept
extensions, and concept extensions to be treated as ‘logical objects’
(which we somehow grasp by grasping the concepts of which they are
extensions). The epistemologically salient features of this arrangement
were summed up in the following remark from the Grundlagen (Ibid.,
section 105).
reason’s proper study is itself. In arithmetic we are not concerned
with objects which we come to know as something alien from
without through the medium of the senses, but with objects given
directly to reason and, as its nearest kin, utterly transparent to it.
And yet, for that very reason, these objects are not subjective
fantasies. There is nothing more objective than the laws of
arithmetic.12
In later writings, Frege elaborated a bit—but only a bit—on his notion of
concept extensions as logical objects. He wrote, for example, that:
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it is futile to take the extension of a concept as a class, and make it
rest, not on the concept, but on single things…the extension of a
concept does not consist of objects falling under the concept, in the
way, e.g., that a wood consists of trees… it attaches to the concept
and to the concept alone…the concept takes logical precedence to
its extension.
(cf. [2.53], 455).
Thus, what made a class into a logical object, in Frege’s view, was only its
relation to the concept of which it formed the extension. He had
ultimately, however, to establish the sense in which logical objects exist,
since, in his view, they were not actual (i.e. not spatial or ‘handleable’).
Here he had only analogies to offer, citing such examples as the axis of the
earth and the centre of mass of the solar system (cf. [2.49], section 26).
These illustrated his generally negative characterization of logical objects
as objects ‘independent of our sensation, intuition and imagination, and
of all construction of mental pictures, memories and earlier sensations,
but not…independent of reason’ (Ibid.).13
Frege had also to establish that logical objects deserve to be called
‘logical’. This he did not do in the Grundlagen, being at that time unsure
whether he needed concept extensions or just concepts.14 He pursued the
matter to a (for him) satisfactory end only in the 1891 lecture ‘Function
und Begriff [2.51], where he argued (i) that the notion of concept-
extension can be reduced to that of the range-of-values of a function; and
(ii) that this latter notion is clearly a logical notion.
Among the more important things that Frege’s belief in the logical
precedence of concepts to their extensions allowed him to do was to
reduce knowledge of infinities to logical knowledge. Along with this he
had also to accept a restriction on how we come to acquire concepts;
namely, that we do so by means other than abstraction from the
particulars falling under them (cf. [2.49], sections 49–51). Such a view of
concept acquisition was of the utmost importance to his logicism. For,
were concepts to be obtainable only via such a process of abstraction,
knowledge of the number concept would likewise be obtainable only
through prior knowledge of the particulars falling under it. If that were so,
however, one would have to give a prior account of how it is that we come
by knowledge of the particulars from which knowledge of the abstracted
concept is derived. And in order to keep this account from destroying the
‘logical’ character of numbers, one would have to make sure that it made
no appeal to the likes of sensation or Kantian intuition. Moreover, even if
it were successful in avoiding appeals to Kantian intuition, such an
abstractive account of concept acquisition would cause severe problems
for the knowledge of infinite sets. For it is hardly plausible to believe that
we could either obtain separate intuitions for each member of an infinite
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collection or be given infinite sets of particulars in the space of a single
intuition of their members (through devices such as, say, Kant’s so-called
‘unity of synthetic apperception’).15
Frege’s logicist treatment of number therefore relied heavily on the idea
that concepts are given prior to and independent of their extensions. This,
indeed, seems to be have been the leading idea behind his notorious Rule
V, the principle that every concept has an extension (or, to put it in its
original form, the principle that all and only s are s if and only if the
extension of is identical to the extension of ψ).16
The discovery by Russell (cf. [2.119]) that this way of thinking of the
relationship between concepts and (logical) objects is subject to paradox
therefore threw Frege’s entire ‘improvement’ of Kant’s arithmetical
epistemology into crisis. For without a principle that makes concepts
prior to their extensions, a Fregean philosophy of arithmetic would have
great difficulty in developing an appropriately non-intuitional model of
cognition for our knowledge of concept extensions. And without a non-
intuitional model of our knowledge of concept extensions, the major
novelty (i.e. the major non-Kantian element) would be missing from
Frege’s proposed explanation of the epistemic robustness or substantiality
of arithmetic.
Russell’s discovery thus raised the problem of how we might come to
apprehend logical objects (and thus numbers), even if it is assumed that
they exist. Without a Frege-type scheme of comprehension, which sees
apprehension of numbers as derived from apprehension of concepts,
and which allows concepts to be apprehended without any prior non-
conceptual apprehension of particulars, one is hard-pressed to avoid at
least some minimal appeal to non-conceptually based knowledge of sets
or extensions—a knowledge which is hard to account for without
making some appeal to sensation or intuition.17 Russell’s paradox
therefore raised grave problems for the epistemology of Frege’s logical
objects.
But even supposing these problems to have been solved, there were, by
Frege’s own admission (indeed, his own insistence!), serious difficulties
still to be overcome in explaining the epistemic productivity of
mathematical inference. To manage these, Frege appealed to the general
phenomenon of Sinn and to the possibility of rearranging (or ‘recarving’)
the contents of a proposition in such a way as to expose contents that had
been hitherto undetected.
Concepts featured prominently in this explanation too. In particular,
it included an appeal to an assumed relationship between concepts and
propositions which allows a proposition to be both understood and
known even though not all the concepts contained in it are
apprehended. This crucially important feature of the relationship
between propositions and their constituent concepts was taken to be
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based on the principles that (i) in order to apprehend a proposition, one
need only know a definition of its immediate constituent concepts; and
that (ii) knowing a definition of a concept does not require that all
content tacit in it be apprehended. It is the recovery of tacitly contained
content (i.e. discovery of its presence and character) that thus allows the
conclusion of an analytic inference to represent something more, by way
of cognitive accomplishment, than is represented by the apprehension
and knowledge of its premisses. As Frege himself put it, the
identification and utilization of such content amounts to something
more than merely ‘taking out of the box again what we have just put into
it’ (Ibid., Section 88).18 For what we put into an inferential ‘box’ is the
knowledge of concepts we use in order to arrive at understanding and
knowledge of its premises. What, on Frege’s account, we are capable of
extracting from such a box is not only judgements formed from those
concepts, but also judgements formed from concepts identified, indeed
formed, through the ‘carving up’ or conceptual rearrangement of the
premises.19
However, if Frege required analytic inference to be epistemically
productive, he also required (at least some of) it to be rigorous.
Therefore, in some sense, he demanded that analytical judgement be
incapable of concealing content. Indeed, he himself insisted that his
logicism required the giving of utterly rigorous proofs for the laws of
arithmetic. It is ‘only if every gap in the chain of deductions is
eliminated with the greatest care’, he said, that we can ‘say with
certainty upon what primitive truths’ they rest (Ibid., Section 4; cf. also
the introduction to [2.52]). And it is only through seeing with certainty
the truths upon which the truths of arithmetic rest that we would be in
a position to judge whether or not those grounds are logical in
character.
What Frege seems not to have seen so clearly, however, is that we can
be certain that a canonically proven proposition is analytic only to the
extent that we can be certain that its premisses do not tacitly contain any
synthetic content. At any rate, how certainty on this score is to be
attained is something about which he seems to have said little. He firmly
believed that there are propositions—the so-called ‘basic laws’ of
arithmetic—that are at once so rich as to be capable of delivering the
whole of arithmetic and also so clearly analytic as to self-evidently
conceal no synthetic content. What he took to be the justification of this
confidence is less clear.
(N.B. Leibniz, the original logicist, also believed in such a layer of
analytic truths. However, for him, things were different. For, in the first
place, he believed that all propositions are analytic. Second, the
propositions he saw as making up the ‘basic laws’—namely, the so-called
logical identities of the form ‘A is A’—were transparently analytic. This is
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so because, for Leibniz, analyticity consisted in containment of the
predicate of a proposition in its subject, and propositions of the form ‘A is
A’ satisfy this containment requirement in a manner in which none
clearer or more certain can be conceived. Leibniz therefore had a natural
stopping point for his reduction to analytic truth. Frege, on the other
hand, having adopted a more complex and sophisticated definition of
analyticity, seems to have lost the ability to identify a class of truths which
were as clearly and certainly analytic as Leibniz’s ‘identities’. As a result,
he lacked as clear a point at which to terminate the reduction of arithmetic
laws to analytic truths.)
Frege’s conception of mathematical inference was thus faced with
two apparently competing demands: on the one hand, the need to
endow analytic judgments with tacit content so as to enable analytic
inference to be epistemically productive; and, on the other, the need to
restrict the mechanisms producing tacit content in such a way as to
guarantee that synthetic content can never be tacitly contained in what
passes for analytic content. In the end, I believe, he failed to meet these
two demands adequately. He did not succeed in providing a set of
basic laws and a criterion of tacit content the pair of which were
guaranteed to permit only the production of analytic truths as tacit
contents of the basic laws. Nor did he manage to ensure that the
epistemic productivity sustainable by means of his mechanisms of tacit
content production are capable of matching those which may be
observed to hold in arithmetic.
The first failure was clearly illustrated by Russell’s paradox, which
shows that the latent content concealed by Frege’s axioms (in particular,
his axiom of comprehension) could include not only synthetic truths,
but even analytical falsehoods! The second failure became the pivotal
feature of the intuitionists’ critique of logicism, which will be discussed
later.
Russell’s logicism was quite different from Frege’s. In the first place, it
was not motivated primarily by the discovery of non-Euclidean
geometries with its attendant belief in the epistemological asymmetry
between geometry and arithmetic. Nor was it based on belief in such
things as logical objects, and the associated division of cognition into
faculties of sense, intuition and reason. Nor, finally, did it restrict its
logicism to arithmetic, but, rather, extended it to the whole of
mathematics, and even to certain areas outside traditional mathematics.20
Rather, it took as its starting points (i) a certain general definition of
mathematics; (ii) a methodological principle to pursue ever further
generalization in science; and (iii) a belief that pursuing this principle in
mathematics would eventually lead one to a most general science of all,
namely, logic.21 It was fuelled in these pursuits by the then rapid and
impressive advances in symbolic logic.
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In the opening paragraph of The Principles of Mathematics ([2.120],
3),22 Russell offered the following definition of pure mathematics:
‘Pure mathematics is the class of all propositions of the form “p
implies q”, and neither p nor q contains any constants except logical
constants’. He then went on to describe his logicist project as that of
showing ‘that whatever has, in the past, been regarded as pure
mathematics, is included in our definition, and that whatever else is
included possesses those marks by which mathematics is commonly
though vaguely distinguished from other studies’ (Ibid.). Russell also
maintained that, in addition to asserting implications, propositions of
pure mathematics are characterized by the fact that they contain
variables (Ibid., p. 5), indeed, variables of wholly unrestricted range
(Ibid., p. 7).
Russell planned to defend this last claim, which he acknowledged as
being highly counterintuitive, by showing that even such apparently
variable-free statements as ‘1+1=2’ can be seen to contain variables once
their true meaning and form is revealed. The discovery (or, better,
recovery) of the true meaning and form of such statements was made
possible by the vast enrichment of the basic stock of logical forms made
available through the work of Peirce, Schröder, Peano and Frege. Using
this work, Russell produced analyses of the deep forms of ordinary
mathematical statements. ‘1+1=2’, for example, was analysed as ‘If x is
one and y is one, and x differs from y, then x and y are two.’ Analysed in
this way, Russell maintained, the supposedly non-implicational, variable
free ‘1+1=2’ is seen both to contain completely general variables and to
express an implication, just as his logicist theory predicted would be the
case (Ibid., p. 6).
Of course, ‘if x is one and y is one, and x and y are different, then x and
y are two’ does not express a genuine proposition at all since it contains
free variables. It expresses instead what might be called a proposition
form or a proposition schema. Russell called it a ‘type of proposition’, and
went on to say that ‘mathematics is interested exclusively in types of
propositions’ (Ibid., p. 7) rather than in individual propositions per se. On
this view, the business of mathematics is to determine which
propositions can be generalized (i.e. which constants can be turned into
variables), and then to carry this process of generalization out to its
maximum possible extent (Ibid., pp. 8, 9). This maximum will have been
reached when we have penetrated to a level of propositions whose only
constants are logical constants and whose only undemonstrated
propositions are the most basic truths whose only constants are logical
constants (Ibid., p. 8).23 The logical constants themselves, as a class, were
to be characterized only by enumeration. Indeed, by their very nature
they admitted only of this kind of characterization, since any other kind
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of characterization would be forced to make use of some element of the
class to be defined.
At bottom, then, Russell’s logicism was motivated by a view of
mathematics that saw it as the science of the most general formal truths;
a science whose only indefinables are those constants of rational
thought (the so-called logical constants) that have the widest and most
ubiquitous usage and whose only indemonstrables are those
propositions which set out the most basic properties of those indefinable
terms (Ibid). In his view, this provided the only precise description of
what philosophers have had in mind in describing mathematics as an a
priori science (Ibid). Mathematics is thus in the business of
generalization. Its aim is to identify those truths that remain true when
their non-logical constants are replaced by variables (Ibid., p. 7). This
process of generalization may require some analysis in order to find the
genuine form of the sentence to be generalized. But once that form is
found, the generalization process should ultimately lead to the
realization that the mathematical truth in question expresses a formal
truth whose variables are completely general and whose only constants
are logical constants.
Ideally, proper method in mathematics requires pursuit of this process
of generalization to the ultimate degree.24 At that point, Russell believed,
we will find formal truths of maximum generality—truths of a generality
so great as to render them incapable of further generalization—truths,
that is, that are so general that they would become non-truths were any of
their constants to be replaced, even through conceptual analysis, by
variables. This, in Russell’s opinion, was the only point at which the
method of mathematics (i.e. the pursuit of maximal formal
generalization) can properly and naturally be brought to a close. He also
believed that it is in this domain of formal truths of the utmost generality,
and in this domain alone, that we can rightly expect to meet what are
properly regarded as laws of logic.
According to Russell, these laws are justified inductively from their
consequences.
in mathematics, except in the earliest parts, the propositions from
which a given proposition is deduced generally give the reason
why we believe the given proposition. But in dealing with the
principles of mathematics, this relation is reversed. Our
propositions are too simple to be easy, and thus their consequences
are generally easier than they are. Hence we tend to believe the
premises because we can see that their consequences are true,
instead of believing the consequences because we know the
premises to be true…thus the method in investigating the
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principles of mathematics is really an inductive method, and is
substantially the same as the method of discovering general laws
in any other science.25
Thus, contrary to what Kant had maintained, the pursuit of greater
generality (or what Kant referred to as ‘unification’) has a natural and
fairly inevitable stopping point; specifically, that level of judgements
having broad scope, entirely general variables and utterly ubiquitous
constants.
Frege and Russell, then, though they agreed in their rejection of
Kantian intuition as the basis of mathematical knowledge, none the less
differed with regard to their estimates of the proper scope of logicism and
the nature and origins of its basic laws. They also differed on the
important question of our knowledge of the infinities with which
mathematics deals, and of how, exactly, that knowledge is related to our
knowledge of concepts.
Unlike Frege, Russell did not believe that concepts alone can give rise
to extensions or sets. Indeed, he responded to his own antinomy by
offering a conception of set which assumed a class of individuals as given
prior to the generation of sets by concepts. In his view, before there can be
a rich universe of sets, there must first be a totality of individuals that is
given by means other than grasp of a concept. Using this domain of
individuals as a base, comprehension by concepts (or what Russell
referred to as ‘prepositional functions’) was then supposed to operate
according to predicative principles of collection. There was thus an order
of ‘priority’ of types or levels induced among entities, with the domain of
individuals constituting the lowest level and the upper levels being
formed by application of comprehension operations to the entities lying at
prior levels.
This way of thinking of set comprehension differs radically from the
way Frege thought of it. Fregean comprehension did not presume an
ordering of entities according to some ‘priority’ ranking, and it was not
restricted to collection of entities formed at prior levels. Perhaps even
more importantly, it did not posit a ‘0th-level’ domain of entities as
somehow given prior to all comprehension by concepts. Indeed, in
Frege’s scheme, the whole idea was to avoid the need of having a
‘starting’ collection—particularly an infinite one—to serve as the raw
material from which comprehension by concepts is to get off the ground.
For, in Frege’s view, having a non-conceptually comprehended domain of
individuals required something like Kantian intuition, and this is exactly
what he hoped to avoid (since he did not see how knowledge of such a
domain could rightly be seen as logical knowledge).
Russell, though he showed some sensitivity to this difficulty, seems
never to have settled on a means of resolving it. In his earlier writings
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he sometimes spoke (cf. [2.120], section 5, ch. 1) as if any statement
positing a domain of existents, and therefore any axiom positing a
domain of individuals, is not to be regarded as a truth of pure
mathematics per se, but rather as an hypothesis whose consequences
are to be investigated.
Later (cf. introduction to [2.120] (2nd edn) and [2.124]), however, he
stated both that he believed such a view to be mistaken and that he
himself had never held such a view. There are also systematic elements
of his thought that would (or at least should) have led him to reject
such a view. Chief in this regard was his belief in the need for the
‘regressive’ method in the foundations of mathematics (defended in
both [2.123] and [2.124]).
Use of the regressive method allows the truth of a principle to be
inferred from its usefulness in deductively unifying a recognized body of
truths. Hence, to the extent that the postulation of a domain of
individuals (e.g. an axiom of infinity) has utility as a means of
deductively organizing the recognized truths of mathematics, it, too,
inherits a certain plausibility and so deserves to be ‘detached’ and
asserted as a truth on its own right. Russell’s ‘regressive’ method thus
elevated axioms of existence to the status of justified assertions, and so
made them more than mere ‘hypotheses’ to be used as antecedents of
conditionals whose consequents are propositions whose proof requires
their use. There would therefore seem to be a tension between Russell’s
adoption of the ‘regressive’ method in mathematics and that part of his
logicism (suggested by remarks he made in the second edition of the
Principia [2.126]) which saw axioms of existence (and, in particular, his
axiom of infinity) as mere hypotheses to be put into the antecedents of
conditionals.
But if there were differences between Russell and Frege regarding the
nature and justification of the basic laws of mathematical thought, there
was substantial agreement between them as regards the nature of
mathematical inference. In particular, there was agreement on the points
that the inferences of mathematics are all to be strictly logical in
character, and that this is necessary in order to satisfy the demands of
rigour.
It is not always easy to see the similarities between their views,
however, because they used different definitions of analyticity and
syntheticity. For Frege, a synthetic inference was one in which the
conclusion could not be extracted from the premisses by any re-carving of
their contents, but rather required something like an infusion of intuition
in order to connect the conclusion with the premiss(es). For Russell, on the
other hand, an inference was synthetic, and, so, epistemically productive
(at least in a minimal way), if its conclusion constituted a different
proposition from its premiss(es). Thus, many inferences that Frege would
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have classified as ‘analytic’, would have been classified by Russell as
‘synthetic’.
The standard of syntheticity in inference set forth by Russell was
weaker than that set forth by Frege. Consequently, many inferences
satisfying Russell’s condition would not satisfy Frege’s.26 Indeed, judged
by the lights of Russell’s definition, even the elementary inferences of
syllogistic reasoning, which Frege classified as analytic, would have been
counted as synthetic by Russell. This was all to the good so far as Russell
was concerned. For it enabled him to meet Kant’s challenge to explain the
epistemic substantiality of mathematical reasoning while at the same time
maintaining, in opposition to Kant, that the inferences involved in such
reasoning are of a purely formal, logical nature and make no appeal to
intuition (cf. [2.121]). If growth of knowledge through inference is
essentially a matter of thereby obtaining a justified judgement whose
propositional content is simply distinct from those of one’s previously
justified judgements, then even very elementary logical inferences can be
epistemically productive.
The ‘logicization’ of mathematical inference was thus, in Russell’s
opinion (cf. [2.120], 4), nothing to be balked at epistemically. What had
kept previous generations of thinkers, and, in particular, Kant, from
embracing it was simply the relatively impoverished state of logic prior to
the late nineteenth century. The old logic with its meagre stock of subject-
predicate forms may have been inadequate to the riches of mathematical
reasoning, but the new logic with its robust functional conception of form
had changed all this. With its help mathematical reasoning could finally
be logicized in its entirety, and ‘a final and irrevocable refutation’ (Ibid.) of
the Kantian doctrine that mathematical inference makes use of intuition
be given.
Effectively countering Kant’s intuitional conception of mathematical
inference was thus an important element of both Frege’s and Russell’s
logicist programmes. They seemed to believe that this could be
accomplished simply by deriving large bodies of mathematical theorems
from specified axioms by purely logical means. On reflection, however,
this seems to be mistaken. Kant may well have underestimated the power
of logical inference. His main point, however, was not that there are
mathematical proofs that have no logical counterparts whatsoever.
Rather, it was that such counterparts, even if they were to exist, would not
preserve the epistemologically essential features of the mathematical
proofs of which they are the ‘logicized’ counterparts.
Against this essentially epistemological point, detailed tours de force
(e.g. Frege’s Grundgesetze and Russell’s Principles of Mathematics and
Principia Mathematica) which locate logical counterparts for mathematical
proofs on even a grand scale can have but little effect. For the claim to be
met is not that there are no counterparts, but rather that they are
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epistomologically inadequate substitutes for the mathematical proofs
they are to replace.
In summary, let us return to our original claim that logicism in this
century arose from two very different sources, to wit, the discovery of
non-Euclidean geometries and the development of symbolic logic.
Frege’s logicism owed the bulk of both its motivation and character to
the former, while that of Russell was due primarily to the latter. This is
the basic reason why Frege’s logicism, unlike Russell’s, was able to
preserve a remarkable degree of fidelity to the precepts of Kantian
epistemology.
Frege did not, however, agree with Kant’s idealist conception of the
faculty of reason (cf. the remark quoted from [2.49], section 105, p. 14 for
an expression of this). To get a realist account, though, he had to get the
right sorts of objects into the picture. They had to be independent of the
human mind in order to insure the objectivity of arithmetic; but they also
had to be intimately related to the basic operation of the human mind in
order to avoid an appeal to intuition and thus to account for the greater
pervasiveness of arithmetic as over against geometry. His solution was
the logical object, the ur-form of which was the class-as-concept-
extension. Through its essential relation with concepts, it could be
brought close to reason. But through the objectivity of concepts it could
also be made objective.
Frege’s idea of giving a realist rather than idealist treatment of Kant’s
faculty of reason foundered on Russell’s paradox. Russell’s reaction to
his paradox was rather different. Far from causing him to give up
logicism, it led him instead to seek another basis for it—a methodological
basis whose chief principle was one enjoining pursuit of maximal
generality in one’s theorizing, including one’s mathematical theorizing.27
In the presence of his belief that mathematical claims express
generalizations, this principle led him in a natural way to a logicist
conception of mathematics. In the end, however, Russell’s paradox
proved to be nearly as great an impediment to Russell’s logicism as it
was to Frege’s. For just as Frege was unable to find a way to fit classes
that do not descend from concepts into his realist logicism of logical
objects given directly to reason, so, too, was Russell unable to find a
satisfactory way of justifying laws asserting the existence of such classes
as genuinely logical laws.
Intuitionism
Like Frege’s logicism, the intuitionism of the early part of this century
was also dominated by (i) the idea that what the mind brings forth
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purely of itself cannot be hidden from it; and (ii) the belief that the
existence of non-Euclidean geometries reveals important epistemological
differences between geometry and arithmetic. The direct predecessors of
the intuitionists appear to have been Gauss and Kronecker, who
interpreted the discovery of non-Euclidean geometries differently than
Frege. For whereas Frege proposed a realist modification of the creation
principle in order to account for the apparent differences between
arithmetic and geometry brought to light by the discovery of non-
Euclidean geometry, Gauss and Kronecker, and the intuitionists after
them, interpreted the difference between arithmetic and geometry in the
light of the creation principle (i.e. principle (i) above), of which they
adopted an idealist reading.
Thus, instead of maintaining Kant’s synthetic a priori conception of
geometry and trying to account for the difference between geometry and
arithmetic by establishing arithmetic as analytic, the early intuitionist
rejected Kant’s synthetic a priori conception of geometry and proposed to
account for the differences between arithmetic and geometry by seeing
the former as a priori and the latter as a posteriori. As Gauss and
Kronecker emphasized, arithmetic is purely a product of the human
intellect, whereas geometry is determined by things outside the human
intellect.28 Years later, Weyl (cf. [2.148], 22) would reiterate the same
theme, remarking that ‘the numbers are to a far greater measure than the
objects and relations of space a free product of the human mind and
therefore transparent to the mind’.
Brouwer, too, expressed similar ideas, identifying as the primary cause
of the demise of intuitionism since the time of Kant (cf. [2.16]) the
refutation of Kant’s belief in an a priori intuition of space by the discovery
of non-Euclidean geometries. At the same time, however, he advocated
resolute adherence to an a priori intuition of time, and even argued that
from this intuition one could recoup a system of geometric judgements
via Descartes’ ‘arithmetization’ of geometry. He considered the
‘primordial intuition of time’—which he described as the falling apart of a
life-moment into a part that is passing away and a part that is becoming—
as the ‘fundamental phenomenon of the human intellect’ (Ibid., p. 127).29
From this intuition one can pass, via a process of abstraction, to the notion
of ‘bare two-oneness’, which Brouwer regarded as the basal concept of all
of mathematics. The further recognition by the intellect of the possibility
of indefinitely continuing this process then leads it through the finite
ordinals, to the smallest transfinite ordinal, and finally to the intuition of
the linear continuum (i.e. to that unified plurality of elements which
cannot be thought of as a mere collection of units since the relations of
interposition which join them is not exhausted by mere interposition of
new units). In this way, Brouwer believed (Ibid., pp. 131–2), first
arithmetic and then geometry (albeit only analytic geometry), via
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reduction of the former to the latter through Descartes’ calculus of
coordinates, come to be qualified as synthetic a priori.30
The early intuitionists thus retained a semblance of adherence to Kant’s
belief in the synthetic a priority of arithmetical knowledge while denying
his belief in the a priority of our knowledge of the base characteristics of
visual space. They were also staunchly Kantian in their conception of
mathematical inference. Poincaré and Brouwer, in particular, devoted
considerable attention to this point.31 Indeed, Poincaré, who carried on a
well-known debate with Russell in the early years of this century,32 made
the role of logical inference in mathematical proof the centrepiece of his
critique of logicism. So, too, in effect, did Brouwer, though his critique was
aimed at the use of logical reasoning in classical mathematics generally,
and not just at the logicists’ programmatic demand regarding the
logicization of proof.
At the heart of the view of proof that both criticized is a conception of
evidence—the classical conception evidence—which sees it as essentially a
means of determining the (classical) truth value of a proposition. On this
view, evidence is a relatively ‘malleable’ commodity. Its effects extend to a
variety of propositions other than that which forms its direct content. This
comes about as a result of subjecting the content of a piece of evidence to
logical analysis, which is used to extract ‘new’ contents from the original
content. By this means, the justificatory power which the evidence
provided for its content can be transferred to the analytically extracted
content. Hence, one and the same piece of evidence can be used to identify
the truth value of a variety of different propositions. This holds, moreover,
despite the fact that there is no parallel analysis directed at the evidence
itself whose purpose is to reveal a separable part of the evidence whose
content is precisely the new content brought forward by means of the
analysis of its content. On the classical view, then, the prepositional
content of a piece of evidence can be ‘detached’ from that evidence itself.
Applying logical analysis to that ‘detached’ content, one can then transfer
the warrant attaching to it to any of the new propositions extracted by
means of that analysis.
Both Brouwer and Poincaré reacted sharply to this view of
inference. Brouwer’s reaction was based on the view that
mathematical knowledge is essentially a product of introspective
experience (cf. [2.17], 488). The extension or development of such
knowledge can therefore not proceed via logical extrapolation of its
content, since such extrapolation does not guarantee any similar
extension of the experience having the extrapolated content as its
content. Extension of genuinely mathematical knowledge thus
requires the extension of the mathematical experience serving as the
evidence for a given content into a mathematical experience of another
content. (Here, experience is understood in such a way as to make it
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capable of serving as the evidence for a given content only if it itself
has that content as its content.) In other words, inference is not to be
seen as a matter of logically extracting new contents from old and
thence transferring warrant from old to new. Rather, it is to be seen as
a process of experientally transforming an introspective construction
having one content into an introspective construction having another.
Brouwer thus held that one can never ‘deduce a mathematical state of
things’ (cf. [2.18], 524, emphasis mine) by means of logical inference.33
He memorialized this view in his so-called First Act of Intuitionism, in
which it he declared that mathematics should be completely separated
from ‘mathematical language and hence from the phenomena of
language described by theoretical logic, recognizing that intuitionist
mathematics is an essentially languageless activity of the mind having
its origin in the perception of a move of time’ (cf. [2.21], 4).
Brouwer thus adhered to a basically Kantian conception of
mathematical reasoning according to which extension of mathematical
knowledge via inference requires development of a new intuition
underlying that inference. Poincaré, too, adopted such a conception of
inference, though his view differed in certain respects from Brouwer’s.
Mathematical reasoning, as he put it (cf. [2.99], 32), has a ‘kind of
creative virtue’ by which its conclusions go beyond its premisses in a
way that the conclusions of logical inferences do not go beyond their
premisses. Logical inference from a mathematically known
proposition, therefore, though it may yield some kind of extension of
that knowledge, will none the less typically not yield an extension of
the genuinely mathematical knowledge thereby represented. In short,
in order for mathematical knowledge that p to be extended to
mathematical knowledge that q, it is not enough that p be seen
logically to imply q. Rather, p must be seen both to be mathematically
different from q and to mathematically imply q (cf. [2.101], bk. II, ch. 2,
section 6; [2.100], ch. 1, section 5). In other words, the ‘movement’ from
premiss to conclusion in a mathematical inference is a case of joint
comprehension of the premisses and conclusion by a common
mathematical ‘universal’ which is seen to persist in the ‘differences’
through which it ‘moves’.
For Poincaré, then, mathematical reasoning consisted in the synthesis
of different propositions by a single, distinctively mathematical structure
or architecture. Thus, as with Brouwer, so, too, with Poincaré, we find a
view of mathematical reasoning which contrasts sharply with the
logicists’ conception of mathematical reasoning.
The views of mathematical reasoning or inference of Brouwer and
Poincaré are thus Kantian in the sense that they reject the idea that
genuine mathematical inference can be logical. They also represent a
modification of Kant’s views, however. For Kant suggested (cf. [2.86],
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741–6) that by means of genuinely mathematical reasoning from a
given set of premisses, one can obtain conclusions that are actually
unattainable by means of purely logical (i.e. purely analytical or
discursive) reasoning from those same premisses. Such an idea,
however, seems not to have figured at all in the arguments of Poincaré
and Brouwer.34 What they were stressing was a difference in epistemic
quality between logical and mathematical reasoning—a difference
which, in their view, would persist even if the two types of reasoning
might prove to be result-wise equivalent. This emphasis on epistemic
quality was based on their belief in a difference between the epistemic
condition of one whose reasoning is founded on topic-neutral steps of
logical inference and one whose inference rests on topic-specific
insights into the given mathematical subject at hand. Reasoning of the
latter sort presupposes a knowledge of the local ‘architecture’ of a
subject. Reasoning of the former sort does not. To use Poincaré’s own
figures of speech, the difference is (i) like that between a writer who
has only a knowledge of grammar versus one who also has an idea for
a story (cf. [2.101], bk. II, ch. 2); or (ii) like that between a chess player
who has knowledge only of the permissible moves of the several
players versus one who has a tactical understanding of the game as
well ([2.100], pt. I, ch. 1, section V).
The intuitionists were thus at odds with the logicists over the
question of the nature of mathematical reasoning. The heart of their
disagreement, moreover, was not a dispute concerning which logic is the
right logic, but rather a deeper difference regarding the role that any
logical inference—classical or non-classical—has to play in
mathematical reasoning. They were, in other words, divided over the
Kantian question of whether intuition has an indispensable role to play
in mathematical inference. The intuitionists sided with Kant in holding
that it does. The logicists took the contrary view.35
In the intuitionism of Brouwer, Poincaré and Weyl we thus find an
attempt to work out a modified form of Kant’s specifically mathematical
epistemology. So far, the modifications noted include (i) the jettisoning
of Kant’s use of spatial intuition as a fundament for mathematical
knowledge; and (ii) the extension and elaboration of his use of temporal
intuition as a basis for arithmetic (and, relatedly, the reduction of
geometry to arithmetic via appeal to Descartes’ ‘arithmetization’ of
geometry).
There is, however, one final modification to be noted, and that
concerns the intuitionists’ (in particular, Brouwer’s and Weyl’s)
conception of existence claims. It is perhaps the most significant of all the
modifications made and consists in a shift from Kant’s conception of
existence claims and our knowledge of them to a conception of existence
claims that is more like that found in such post-Kantian romantic
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idealists as Fichte, Schelling and Goethe. The basic non-Kantian element
of this view was the introduction of a non-sensory, purely intellectual
form of intuition (intellektuelle Anschauung).36 This was conceived as a
form of self-knowledge whose key epistemic feature was its
immediacy—an immediacy expressing the romantic idealists’ concern
with the epistemic effects of representation. They saw representation as
the basic source of error and uncertainty in cognition and therefore
advocated its avoidance.
Their reasoning was basically Kantian. That is, they began with the
Kantian premiss that no idea or concept (more generally, no
representation) contains the being or existence of that which it
represents37 and concluded from this that no concept or idea (more
generally, no representation) could, in and of itself, give the existence
of anything falling under it. Indeed, representations only tend to
increase the epistemic distance between the knower and the object to
be known since they leave the being of the object still to be given
while adding grasp of the representation to those things that must be
accomplished before the object can be known.
What was wanted, therefore, was some kind of representationless
knowledge of being. For the paradigm case of such knowledge, the
romantic idealists turned to our knowledge of our willing and acting
selves. Their model for knowledge of existence thus became one of self-
knowledge; in order to know that something exists, the knower must live
it or be it. In other words, she must incorporate it into herself so that her
knowledge of its existence becomes that of her knowledge of her own
existence. As Schelling said (cf. [2.12], 344), ‘the proposition that there are
things external to us will only be certain… to the extent that it is identical
with the proposition I exist, and its certainty can only match that of the
proposition from which it derives.’
Brouwer, it seems, adopted this romantic idealist conception of
knowledge of existence. His so-called First Act of Intuitionism can
indeed be seen as issuing a call for the mathematical knower to turn
into himself and to shun the epistemic indirection of the classical view
of mathematics with its involvement in the representation of
mathematical thought—that is, mathematical language.38 Thus he
reminded us:
you know that very meaningful phrase ‘turn into yourself’. There
seems to be a kind of attention which centres round yourself and
which to some extent is within your power. What this Self is we
cannot further say; we cannot even reason about it, since—as we
know—all speaking and reasoning is an attention at a great
distance from the Self; we cannot even get near it by reasoning or
words, but only by ‘turning into the Self’ as it is given to us….
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Now you will recognize your Free Will, in so far [as] it is free to
withdraw from the world of causality and then to remain free only
then obtaining a definite Direction which it will follow freely,
reversibly.
([2.14], 2 square brackets, mine)
Here we clearly see the romanticist idea that representation impedes
knowledge—an idea that was expressed in strikingly similar terms by
Fichte, who said:
Look into yourself. Turn away from everything that surrounds you
and towards your inner life. This is the first demand that
philosophy makes on its followers. What matters is not what is
outside you, but only what comes from within yourself.
([2.41], 422)
Though we lack the space adequately to argue for it here, we believe that
Brouwer adhered to this romantic idealist conception of knowledge in his
mathematical epistemology. He believed that mathematical existence
consisted in construction, that construction was a kind of autonomous
‘interior’ activity39 and that mathematical knowledge was therefore
ultimately a form of self-knowledge. The key point was summed up well
in Weyl’s remark (quoted earlier) that arithmetic is a free creation of the
human mind and therefore especially transparent to it.
For Brouwer, then, existence claims were to be backed by exhibitions of
objects (of the type claimed to exist), where these exhibitions were, at
bottom, acts of creation by the mathematical subject. He thus departed
from Kant’s receptive conception of our knowledge of existence claims
whose main idea was that judgements of existence must be forced upon a
passive cognitive agent and not be the product of its own creative or
inventive activity.40
Hilbert’s position
In the third major ‘ism’ of the early period, Hilbert’s so-called
formalism, we find another form of Kantianism, and one which
contrasts with the intuitionist position in at least three important
respects. The first concerns the conception of our knowledge of
existence claims that was adopted. The second concerns the epistemic
importance placed on spatial or quasi-spatial intuition in the
foundations of mathematics. The third concerns the distinction between
genuine judgements and regulative ideals that figured so prominently in
Kant’s general epistemology.
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As was noted above, Brouwer and Weyl conceived of the act of
exhibition required for knowledge of an existence claim as, ultimately,
an act of creation by the exhibiting subject. The epistemic significance
of this act was taken to be based on the special access that a creating
subject is supposed to have to his creations. This reduced the epistemic
distance between the exhibitor and the exhibited object to that between
the willing, acting subject and himself—a distance which, according to
romantic idealist lights, is the desirable, optimal or perhaps only
tolerable distance to have separating the mathematical knower from
the objects of her existential judgements. It also, however, created an
irreducible asymmetry between the exhibiting agent and all other
agents as regards their knowledge of the exhibited object. Indeed, that
was an essential part of the intuitionists’ point—namely, that
mathematical knowledge is ultimately a form of self-knowledge, and
that it is indeed only self-knowledge that possesses the epistemic
qualities that we want mathematical knowledge to have.
Hilbert consciously adopted a conception of mathematical
knowledge that was more in keeping with what he thought of as the
ideal of objectivity. He rejected the intuitionists’ focus on the inner life
and self-knowledge as too subjective a basis on which to found
mathematical knowledge. In opposition to the epistemic individualism
of the intuitionists, Hilbert opted for a more communitarian conception
of knowledge. Indeed, he believed that it was the very ‘task of science
to liberate us from arbitrariness, sentiment and habit and to protect us
from the subjectivism that already made itself felt in Kronecker’s views
and…find its culmination in intuitionism’ (cf. [2.77], 475).
In Hilbert’s view, therefore, there was to be a public domain of
objects to which all members of the human (or at least the human-
scientific) epistemic community were to have equal access. Hilbert
thus stressed the fact that the objects of finitary intuitions were to be
recognizable (wiedererkennbar) (cf. [2.75], 171). This meant that those
intuitions could be re-enacted and confirmed by other intuitions,
including other intuitions of the exhibitor’s as well as intuitions of
non-exhibitors. Consequently, the exhibitor of a finitary object would
have no essential epistemic advantage over the non-exhibitor as
regards knowledge of the object exhibited.
In Hilbert’s finitism, therefore, the ‘constructivist’ demand that
objects claimed to exist be exhibited was to serve the role of taking the
object of exhibition out of the exhibitor’s head and putting it in the
public domain where both exhibitor and non-exhibitor, alike and
equally, would be able (and, indeed, required) to judge the object by its
intersubjectively confirmable effects. Intuitionistic and finitistic
exhibition were thus two very different things. For while the whole
intent of the former was to tap the epistemic power of the supposedly
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special relation of intimacy that a creative subject was believed to have
with respect to his own creative acts and intentions, the latter was
intended to function as part of a more communitarian scheme of
knowledge—a scheme in which the exhibitor had no epistemic
advantage over the non-exhibitor. This parity between exhibitor and
non-exhibitor is the kind of thing that is necessary if there is to be
meaningful epistemic co-operation (e.g. division of epistemic labour)
between them and if there is to be a way of monitoring the quality of
each contributor’s contribution. Epistemic co-operation, in turn, is
desirable because through it the total amount of knowledge at the
disposal of the individual community member can be expected to
exceed that obtainable by that member himself, acting exclusively on
his own.41
There are, then, we believe, large and important differences between
the finitist and intuitionist conceptions of what is to be accomplished
through exhibition. So much so, indeed, that we doubt there is much to
be accomplished by describing them both as having adhered to a
‘constructivist’ conception of existence claims.
The second point of contrast between Hilbert and the early
constructivists (which, like the preceding one, we can only mention
and not develop here) concerns the very different roles they accorded
to spatial intuition. Contrary to both the early constructivists (in
particular, Kronecker, Brouwer and Weyl) and Kant, all of whom
limited spatial intuition to geometry, Hilbert identified a type of
spatial intuition which he took to be the basis of arithmetical
knowledge. This was the position of his so-called ‘finitary standpoint’
according to which the basis of our arithmetical (and perhaps also our
geometrical)42 knowledge is a kind of a priori intuition in which the
shapes or forms (Gestalten) of concrete signs are ‘intuitively present as
immediate experience prior to all thought’ (cf. [2.75], 171; [2.76], 376;
[2.77], 464) and ‘immediately given intuitively, together with the
objects, as something that neither can be reduced to anything else nor
requires reduction’ (cf. [2.76], 376; [2.77], 465).43
Hilbert thus proposed replacing Kant’s a priori intuitions of space
and time, which he viewed as so much ‘anthropological garbage’ (cf.
[2.78], 385), with a single intuition which was taken to provide a
framework of shapes or forms in which our experience of concrete
signs was embedded (cf. [2.75], 171). This intuition, being ‘prior to’ all
thought as its ‘irremissible pre-condition’ (cf. [2.76], 376; [2.78], 383,
385), was the source of all our a priori knowledge.
The third main point at which Hilbert’s Kantianism contrasted with
that of the early constructivists was in its use of certain key elements of
Kant’s general (as opposed to his specifically mathematical)
epistemology. Of particular importance here is Kant’s distinction
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between genuine judgements and regulative ideals. Hilbert took this
distinction as the basic model for his division of classical mathematics
into a real and an ideal part. The real propositions and proofs were
taken to be the genuine judgements and evidence of which our
knowledge is constituted. Ideal propositions, on the other hand,
though they served to stimulate and guide the growth of our
knowledge, were none the less not considered to be a part of it. They
did not describe things that are ‘present in the world’ (cf. [2.75], 190).
Nor were they ‘admissible as a foundation of that part of our thought
having to do with the understanding (in unserem verstandesmäßtigen
Denken)’ (cf. [2.75], 190). They corresponded instead to ideas ‘if,
following Kant’s terminology, one understands as an idea a concept of
reason which transcends all experience and by means of which the
concrete is to be completed into a totality’ (Ibid.).
Hilbert’s ideal sentences are therefore not to be likened to the
indirectly verifiable ‘theoretical sentences’ of a realistically interpreted
scientific theory familiar to us from logical empiricist epistemology.
Rather, they are to be interpreted instrumentalistically, as having the
same general regulative function as Kantian ideas of reason. The
objects and states of affairs described in the ‘theoretical sentences’ of a
realistically interpreted science clearly do not ‘transcend all
experience’. Kant’s ideas of reason, on the other hand, do.
Hilbert’s ideal propositions thus function as regulative devices.
They do not ‘prescribe any law for objects, and [do] not contain any
general ground of the possibility of knowing or of determining objects
as such’ ([2.86], 362, square brackets mine). Rather, they are ‘merely
subjective law(s) for the orderly management of the possessions of our
understanding, that by comparison of its concepts it may reduce them
to the smallest number’ (Ibid.).
Hilbert also followed Kant in maintaining that the use of ideal
methods should be epistemically conservative. They should, that is, be
only more efficient means of producing real judgements which could,
none the less, in principle (though less efficiently) be developed
through the exclusive use of real methods. As Kant put it:
Although we must say of the transcendental concepts of reason
that they are only ideas, this is not by any means to be taken as
signifying that they are superfluous or void. For even if they
cannot determine any object, they may yet, in a fundamental
and unobserved fashion, be of service to the understanding as a
canon for its extended and consistent employment. The
understanding does not thereby obtain more knowledge of any
object than it would have by its own concepts, but for the
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acquiring of such knowledge it receives better and more
extensive guidance.
([2.86], 385)
Similarly in Hilbert. Ideal methods, he said, play an ‘indispensable’ and
‘well-justified’ role ‘in our thinking’ (cf. [2.76], 372, emphasis Hilbert’s).
They should not, however, be permitted to generate any real result that
does not agree with the dictates of real evidence itself (cf.[2.76], 376; [2.77],
471). Their role is rather that of enabling us to retain in our reasoning
those patterns of inference in terms of which we most readily and
efficiently conduct our inferential affairs (cf.[2.76], 379; [2.77], 476).
These patterns are the patterns of classical logic. Thus, Hilbert’s
introduction of the so-called ideal elements was ultimately for the sake of
preserving classical logic as the logic of our mathematical reasoning.
Introduction of ideal methods was made necessary by the fact that there
exist certain real propositions (referred to by Hilbert as problematic real
propositions) that do not abide by the principles of classical logic. By this
it is meant that when these propositions are manipulated by the principles
of classical logic, they produce conclusions that are not real propositions.44
In order to obtain, then, a system that both contains the real truths and
also has classical logic as its logic, Hilbert believed it necessary to add the
ideal propositions. He also believed this to be the minimal modification of
real mathematics necessary to restore it to its epistemically optimal
classical logical state (cf.[2.76], 376–9; [2.77], 469–71).
However, in thus restoring mathematical reasoning to its classical
logical state, Hilbert observed that the logical operators were no longer
being conceived of and employed in a semantical or contentual way as
expressions for operations on meaningful propositions. Rather, they were
being used in a purely syntactical way as part of a larger computationo-
algebraic device for manipulating formulas. As he put it:
we have introduced the ideal propositions to ensure that the
customary laws of logic again hold one and all. But since the ideal
propositions, namely, the formulas, insofar as they do not express
finitary assertions, do not mean anything in themselves, the logical
operations cannot be applied to them in a contentual way, as they
are to the finitary propositions. Hence, it is necessary to formalize
the logical operations and also the mathematical proofs
themselves; this requires a transcription of the logical relations into
formulas, so that to the mathematical signs we must still adjoin
some logical signs, say
&
→
and
or
implies
∼
not
([2.76], 381)
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We thus find here a final step of abstraction from meaning in Hilbert’s
ideal mathematics—namely, abstraction from the meanings of the logical
constants. It was made necessary by the decision to preserve the
psychologically natural laws of classical logic as the laws of mathematical
reasoning; a decision which, in turn, was the result of trying to preserve
the most effective ‘canon’ available to us for the development of our real
mathematical judgements. Ultimately, then, this ‘formalism’ of Hilbert’s,
with its radical abstraction from meaning, derived from his Kantian
conception of the distinction between the real and ideal propositions
according to which he saw the cognitive or epistemic value of the ideal
elements as residing in their utility as instruments for extending our real
judgements.
At the same time, however, it is also almost certainly this same
radical abstraction from meaning that has tempted so many to
misdescribe Hilbert’s position as a formalist position in the sense of one
which sees mathematics as a ‘game’ played with symbols. The idea
behind this ‘game’ imagery, presumably, is that when every trace of
meaning is obliterated, as in Hilbert’s view of ideal mathematics,
mathematics becomes ultimately a symbol-manipulation activity
conducted according to certain rules; rules which, moreover, answer
not to anything as serious as a concern for objective truth, but rather
only to such less weighty concerns as a subjective or psychological
urge for logical unity in our thinking. Even such a well-positioned and
astute interpreter of Hilbert as Weyl eventually succumbed to the
temptations of this description of Hilbert’s views (cf.[2.147], 640). In
our opinion, however, such an interpretation fails to take account both
of Hilbert’s overall Kantian epistemology and of certain quite specific
remarks he himself made regarding the syntactical character of ideal
reasoning. Hence, while we see no particular reason to deny the title of
formalism to Hilbert’s position, we would none the less insist that it is
formalism of a quite different kind than the ‘game-played-with-
symbols’ formalism. Hilbert stated his view forcefully in the following
remark.
The formula game that Brouwer so deprecates has, besides its
mathematical value, an important general philosophical
significance. For this formula game is carried out according to
certain definite rules, in which the technique of our thinking is
expressed. These rules form a closed system that can be
discovered and definitively stated. The fundamental idea of my
proof theory is none other than to describe the activity of our
understanding, to make a protocol of the rules according to
which our thinking actually proceeds. Thinking, it so happens,
parallels speaking and writing: we form statements and place
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them one behind another. If any totality of observations and
phenomena deserve to be made the object of a serious and
thorough investigation, it is this one.
([2.77], 475 (emphasis Hilbert’s))
This suggests that the rules of the so-called ‘game’ of ideal reasoning are
nothing other than the basic laws of human thought. The heart of
Hilbert’s proof theory, and the heart of the ‘formalism’ of his later
thought, was thus the belief that much of human mathematical thought
is, at bottom, formal-algebraic or syntactical in character. Indeed, as he
remarked elsewhere, the custom in mathematical thought, and in
scientific thought generally, is to make ‘application of formal thought-
processes (formaler Denkprozesse) and abstract methods’ (cf.[2.78], 380).
In fact, he noted,
Even in everyday life one uses methods and conceptual
constructions which require a high degree of abstraction and which
only become intelligible by means of an unconscious application of
the axiomatic method. Examples are the general process of
negation and the concept of infinity.
(Ibid.)
What emerges from all this is an idealistically oriented formalism whose
goal is to locate and defend (as a sound regulative device) the basic
‘forms’ of human thought. These forms of thought, which might be
thought of as theory-forms, represent high-level commonalities of form
that our thinking about a wide variety of subjects share. It is less clear
whether, in speaking of ‘the techniques of our thinking’ as being
expressible in a ‘closed system’ of rules that can ‘be discovered and
definitively stated’ ([2.77], 475), Hilbert meant a single system of rules
which gives a general algebra of thought, or whether he was thinking of a
plurality of different theory-forms, the repository of which is classical
mathematics. In either case, however, we obtain a formalism whose forms
are fundamentally forms of thought—forms of thought, moreover, which,
despite their syntactical character, are none the less deep expressions of
the nature of human reasoning and therefore much more than a mere
‘playing’ of a ‘game’ with symbols.
For Hilbert, then, the ideal methods of thinking constituted a logical
mould to whose contours our minds are shaped in their inferential
dealings. This makes their use inviting, if not unavoidable. But inviting or
not, the legitimacy of ideal reasoning still depends on the satisfaction of a
certain condition—namely, its consistency, or, more specifically, its
finitarily demonstrable consistency with the finitarily provable propositions.45 As
is well known, however, it is precisely the satisfaction of this requirement
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that was called into question by Gödel’s discovery of his celebrated
incompleteness theorems in 1931 (cf. [2.62]).
The proofs of these theorems featured a technique (commonly referred
to as the ‘arithmetization’ of metamathematics) for representing the
concepts and statements of the metamathematics of a given formal system
T46 in that portion of a formal theory of arithmetic that contains the
elementary theory of recursive operations on the natural numbers. For
present purposes, the important feature of this fragment of arithmetic is
that it appears to be contained in what Hilbert regarded as the finitary part
of number theory. For that reason, it also appears to be contained in those
ideal theories of classical mathematics which it was Hilbert’s concern to
defend as legitimate.
What Gödel was able to show was first that for any formal system T
containing the elementary fragment of arithmetic spoken of above, if T
is consistent, then there is a sentence G of the language of T such that
neither G nor ¬ G is a theorem of T. Using the proof of this first
incompleteness theorem, Gödel was then able to prove a second
incompleteness theorem by formulating in T a sentence, ConT, of which
there is reason to say that it expresses the claim that T is consistent, and
of which it can be proven that it is not provable in T if T is consistent.
From this second theorem, and the assumption that T contains finitary
arithmetic, it is then concluded that the consistency of T is not provable
by finitary means. From this conclusion it is in turn inferred that no
system I of ideal mathematics that contains T is such that its real-
consistency can be proven by finitary means, and from this, finally, it is
concluded that Hilbert’s intended defence of the ideal reasoning of
classical mathematics cannot be carried out.
In the beginning, Gödel shied away from this conclusion, maintaining
(with characteristic caution) that his second theorem did ‘not contradict
Hilbert’s formalistic viewpoint’ since ‘it is conceivable that there exist
finitary proofs that cannot be expressed’ in the classical systems for which
that theorem had been proved to hold (cf. [2.62], 615). Eventually,
however, he was persuaded by Bernays that these reservations were
unwarranted, at which time he then accepted the view that his second
theorem did indeed refute Hilbert’s programme as it was originally
conceived by Hilbert (cf. [2.64], 133).
THE LATER PERIOD
This completes our discussion of the developments of the early period. We
turn now to the later period (i.e. the period after 1931), where we shall
begin by considering the changes it brought to the ‘isms’ of the early
period.
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Hilbert’s Formalism
The above-stated argument against Hilbert’s programme using Gödel’s
theorems gained nearly universal acceptance in the later period and has
indeed become a commonplace amongst twentieth-century philosophers
of mathematics. The few challenges there have been to it have been
mainly of two types: (i) those that seek to revive Hilbert’s programme by
arguing for a less restrictive conception of fmitary evidence (and, hence,
a more potent base from which to launch the search for a finitary proof of
the real-consistency of ideal mathematics) than was originally intended
by Hilbert; and (ii) those that seek a more restricted body of ideal
methods whose real-consistency needs to be proven.
Those belonging to the first camp (e.g. Gentzen [2.61], Bernays [2.8],
Ackermann [2.1], Gödel [2.64], Kreisel [2.90], Schütte [2.128], Feferman
[2.38]; [2.39] and Takeuti [2.138]), in one way or another have all argued
that the means used in giving the proof of real-consistency required by
Hilbert’s programme ought to be extended to means reaching beyond
that which is formalizable in what has commonly been recognized as the
natural formalization of Hilbert’s finitary standpoint (namely, the theory
known as Primitive Recursive Arithmetic, or PRA).47 Among those, some
(e.g. Gentzen [2.61], Ackermann [2.1], and, on one reading, Gödel [2.64])
have questioned the correctness of identifying the finitary with what is
formalizable in PRA, arguing that finitary reasoning extends well
beyond that which is formalizable in PRA, and includes such things as
forms of transfinite induction which go beyond even what is provable in
ordinary first-order Peano arithmetic (PA).
The basic idea of this line of thought is that there are types of
reasoning which (a) are not codifiable in PRA, but which none the less
(b) share the same characteristics believed to give finitary evidence its
distinctive epistemological credentials, and which (c) allow us to
establish the consistency of much of the ideal reasoning of classical
mathematics that cannot be secured by means of proofs formalizable in
PRA. It is therefore argued that an extension of what is to be counted as
admissible reasoning in constructing the required consistency proofs of
the various ideal systems of classical mathematics is in order, and that a
significant partial realization of Hilbert’s original aims can thus be
attained.
Others (e.g. Kreisel [2.90] and Feferman [2.39]) in the first camp have
argued not so much for a reconsideration of what should be counted as
finitary evidence, as for a liberalization and refinement of what are the
epistemically gainful means of proving consistency, whether or not they
are properly classifiable as finitary. The basic idea here is that the simple
distinction between real and ideal methods does not begin to do justice to
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the rich scheme of gradations in epistemic quality that separate the
various kinds of evidence available for use in metamathematical proofs.
Hence, this simple distinction should be replaced by a more refined
scheme which distinguishes not only the finitary and the non-finitary,
but also the various ‘grades’ of both constructive and non-constructive
methods (and the various reducibility relations which exist between the
distinguished kinds of non-constructive methods and the distinguished
kinds of constructive methods).48 When this is done, it is claimed, results
amounting to a substantial partial realization of a generalized Hilbert’s
programme can be achieved (cf. Kreisel [2.90] and Feferman [2.39]).
The same basic conclusion is arrived at by a quite different line of
reasoning in the so-called programme of ‘reverse mathematics’ of
Friedman and Simpson (cf. [2.134]). The strategic idea of this
programme is basically the opposite of that of Kreisel and Feferman. It
does not aim at beefing up the methods available for constructing the
requisite consistency proofs, but rather at cutting down the systems of
ideal reasoning whose consistency needs proving. This is to be done by
giving a more exact characterization of the core of ideal reasoning that
is truly indispensable to the reconstruction of the essential results of
classical mathematics.
The reverse-mathematical revision of Hilbert’s programme thus
begins by isolating those results of classical mathematics that are
believed to constitute its ‘core’. It then seeks to find the weakest
possible natural axiomatic theory capable of formalizing this core. The
hope is that this minimal system will eliminate unnecessary strength
present in the usual axiomatizations of the core (generally, some
version of second-order arithmetic) and therefore that its real-
consistency will prove to be more susceptible to finitary proof than
that of the usual systems.
So far, significant partial progress along these lines has been achieved.
In particular, it has been shown that (i) there is a certain subsystem
(known as WKL0) of PA2 (i.e. second-order Peano arithmetic) which
embodies a substantial portion of classical mathematics; (ii) all the II1
theorems (i.e. theorems equivalent to some formula of the form where is
a recursive formula) of WKL0 are provable in PRA (cf. [2.133], [2.134];
and (iii) the proof of (ii) can itself be given in PRA (cf. [2.132].49
Assuming the codifiability of finitary reasoning in PRA and the
importance of the II1 class of real truths, this amounts to a finitary proof
of the real-consistency of an important part of classical ideal
mathematics. This, in turn, would constitute a significant partial
realization of Hilbert’s programme.
In addition to these two alternatives, it is possible to describe, at least
in philosophical outline, a third approach which seems in certain
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important respects to be closer to Hilbert’s original ideas than either of
them. The key element of this third alternative, which is absent from each
of the other two approaches just described, takes its lead from the
Kantian character of Hilbert’s conception of ideal mathematics. In
particular, it stresses the point that Hilbert’s ideal methods, like Kant’s
ideas of pure reason, are recommended solely by the efficiency that their
instrumental use is supposed to bring to the development of our real
judgements.
This means, among other things, that ideal propositions and
inferences that fail to bring with them discernible improvements in
efficiency (when compared to their real counterparts proving the same
results) do not belong to that part of ideal mathematics that need, in
principle, be defended by Hilbert. In other words, ideal elements that
fail in any significant way to increase the efficiency of the development
of our real knowledge have, in principle, no claim to be included
among those ideal elements whose real-consistency the Hilbertian
must defend. Therefore, in identifying the elements (i.e. axioms and
rules of inference) of an ideal system I for whose defence the Hilbertian
is to be held accountable, it must be borne in mind that they must
figure in some significant way in the production of efficiency; that is,
each must be an essential ingredient in some ideal derivation ⌬1 of a
real theorem τR such that (i) ⌬1 (together with the necessary
metamathematical proof of soundness for I50) is more efficient than any
real proof of τR, and (ii) ⌬1 is the only derivation in I that significantly
improves upon the efficiency of the real proofs of τR. If an item (e.g. an
axiom, rule of inference, etc.) of I possesses none of the virtues of
efficiency for which ideal elements are in general prized, then, in
principle, it can and should be eliminated from I. With all such
eliminations made, one would expect the prospects for a finitary proof
of I’s consistency to have been improved. Therefore, the question of
whether an ideal system is comprised wholly of elements that are
essential in the above-indicated sense ought to be of prime importance
in determining the make-up of those ideal theories for whose defence
the Hilbertian is ultimately taken to be responsible.
Yet, despite its clear importance for the proper reckoning of the
ultimate responsibilities and prospects of Hilbert’s programme, this
question has been either ignored or overlooked by those writing on the
subject. Simpson (cf. [2.134], 360–1), for example, readily admits that
the proofs of standard theorems in WKL0 and are sometimes
‘laborious’ and ‘much more complicated than the standard proof(s)’.
Yet he takes no notice of the potential this feature of reverse
mathematics has to undo its entire rationale for effecting a partial
realization of Hilbert’s programme. To the extent that the proofs in
WKL0
and
WKL
+
0
are
more
laborious
than
the
‘standard’
proofs
of
the
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same ideal theorems, to the same extent are WKL0 and of questionable
worth as models of Hilbert’s ideal reasoning. Moreover, were the least
laborious
ideal
proofs
of
real
theorems
in
WKL0
and
WKL
+
0
to
reach
levels of laboriousness equal to those of the least laborious real proofs
for those theorems, they would cease to be ideal proofs that the
Hilbertian should want to preserve, and, hence, cease to be proofs
whose soundness he should be obliged to defend.
It is thus important for the ‘reverse mathematicians’ to answer the
following questions: (1) Do the ideal proofs of real theorems in WKL0
and preserve, at least on balance, the kinds of gains in efficiency for
which ideal reasoning was prized by Hilbert in the first place?; and (2)
Are the ideal proofs of real theorems in WKL0 and less laborious than
their most efficient real counterparts? To the extent that either of these
questions is answered in the negative, the reverse mathematicians’ use
of the systems of reverse mathematics to establish partial realizations
of Hilbert’s programme becomes implausible. So far as I can see,
however, the reverse mathematicians have done nothing to allay fears
that such questions as (1) and (2) above may have to be answered in
the negative.
It would be unfair, however, to lay too much blame on the reverse
mathematicians. For the questions they have neglected have been
generally neglected by those writing on Hilbert’s programme. This
includes philosophers, too (indeed, perhaps primarily), and not just
logicians. All have failed properly to emphasize two fundamental
points: (i) that the prospects for Hilbert’s programme can adequately be
assessed only when a suitably accurate means of comparing the
complexity of real and ideal proofs has been developed and those
systems containing the gainful ideal proofs have been identified; and (ii)
the complexity metric figuring in (i) is capable of measuring not only the
kind of complexity (call it verificational complexity) that is encountered
when one sets about the task of determining of a given item whether or
not it is an ideal proof of a certain kind, but also, and, indeed, primarily,
a kind of complexity (call it inventional complexity) which constitutes the
complexity involved in discovering an ideal proof of the desired kind in
the first place.51 Failure to appreciate points (i) and (ii) has, it seems to
me, led to inadequate attention being paid to the development of
appropriate metrics for measuring the complexity of ideal proofs and
comparing the complexity thus measured to that for the corresponding
real proofs. Without the development of such a theory of complexity,
however, it does not seem to me possible to render a compelling final
assessment of Hilbert’s programme—and by that I mean the programme
of Hilbert’s original philosophical conception.
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Logicism
Logicism re-emerged in the 1930s and 1940s as the favoured philosophy
of mathematics of the logical empiricists (cf. [2.22], [2.23] and [2.66]). I
say ‘re-emerged’ because the positivists did not develop a logicism of
their own in the way that Dedekind, Frege and Russell did. Rather, they
simply appropriated the technical work of Russell and Whitehead
(modulo the usual reservations concerning the axioms of infinity and
reducibility)52 and attempted to embed it in an overall empiricist
epistemology.
This empiricist turn was a fairly novel development in the history of
logicism, and it represented a radical departure from both the original
logicism of Leibniz, which was part of a larger rationalist epistemology,
and the more recent logicism of Frege, which was strongly critical of
empiricist attempts to accommodate mathematics (cf. Frege’s criticism of
Mill in [2.49], sections 9–11, 23–5). It was, perhaps, less at odds with
Russell’s logicism with its imputation of a common methodology linking
mathematics and the empirical sciences.
Like all empiricists, the logical empiricists, too, struggled with Kant’s
idea that mathematics is immune to empirical revision. More accurately,
they struggled with the Kantian problematic concerning how to account
for the apparent certainty and necessity of mathematics while at the
same time being able to explain its seeming robust informativeness.53
Their choice of strategies for trying to accommodate these two data was
to empty mathematics of all non-analytic content while, at the same time,
arguing that analytic truth can be ‘substantial’ and non-self-evident.
The logical empiricists thus sacrificed the strict empiricist claim that
all knowledge is evidensorily based on the senses. Their empiricism was,
therefore, a liberal empiricism, an empiricism making use of a distinction
like that of Hume’s between ‘relations of ideas’ and ‘matters of fact’ (cf.
[2.83], section IV, Pt. I). The exact distinction they utilized was one calling
for the separation of those propositions whose truth or falsity is
determined by the meanings of their constituent terms (and is therefore
independent of contingent fact) and those propositions whose truth or
falsity is dependent upon contingent, empirical matters of fact.54 They
then appealed to this distinction in arguing that the truths of logic are
analytic in character. And from this, and the technical work of Russell
and Whitehead, they concluded that the truths of mathematics are
analytic.55
Thus, though they accepted the traditional Kantian idea that
mathematical judgements are immune to empirical revision, and though
they made central use of something like Kant’s analytic/synthetic
distinction in formulating their account of mathematics, the logical
empiricists none the less rejected the distinctive thesis of Kantian
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mathematical epistemology; namely, that knowledge of mathematics is
synthetic a priori in character. Indeed, the denial that any knowledge is
synthetic a priori in character was a central ingredient of the logical
empiricists’ epistemological outlook.
Their mathematical epistemology came under heavy attack by Quine
in the 1950s. Quine’s attack was based on a criticism of the pivotal
distinction of the empiricists between analytic and synthetic truths (cf.
[2.109], [2.111]). According to Quine, the basic unit of knowledge or
judgement—the basic item of our thinking that is tested against
experience—is science as a whole. Since mathematical and logical
statements are inextricably interwoven parts of the larger body of
science, they therefore too, at least to some extent, must derive their
confirmation or disconfirmation from empirical sources. Consequently,
the statements of logic and mathematics cannot rightly be regarded as
true by virtue of meanings alone, if by that there is intended some
contrast with statements regarded as true in virtue of the facts. A
distinction between truths of meaning (i.e. analytic truths) and truths of
fact (i.e. synthetic truths) cannot therefore be maintained. Yet, without
some such distinction, the logicism of the logical empiricists does not
have a hope of succeeding.
Within a relatively brief period of time, this critique of Quine’s became
a major influence in the philosophy of mathematics and, under the
weight of that influence, the logicism of the logical empiricists began to
sink into oblivion. There have, however, been a few attempts to revive
(or, perhaps better, to exhume) logicism along other lines. The most
systematic and detailed (if, perhaps, not the most convincing) of these is
that given in the two-volume work of David Bostock (viz. [2.12]). This is
not, however, so much a defence of logicism as it is an attempt to
determine a best case for it, so that its plausibility as a philosophy of
arithmetic might finally be judged.56 Indeed, he ends up concluding that
logicism is of strictly limited viability as a philosophy of arithmetic. The
main point of his argument is that there is no unique reduction of
arithmetic to logic, and that this creates problems for any logicism (like,
say, that of Frege or Russell) that wants to identify numbers with objects.
More nearly defences are the recent attempts by Hilary Putnam,
Harold Hodes, Hartry Field and Steven Wagner to establish the
plausibility of modified forms of logicism. Putnam [2.102] and Hodes
[2.81] both offer defences of a type of logicist position also known as
‘ifthenism’ or ‘deductivism’.57 The former argues that, though statements
of existence in mathematics are generally to be seen as statements
asserting the existence of structures, they are not to be taken as assertions
of the actual existence of these structures, but only of their possible
existence. Existence statements are therefore, at bottom, logical claims,
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and they are to be verified by generally logical means (and, in particular,
by syntactical consistency proofs).
Hodes takes a somewhat different approach, arguing, in a manner
reminiscent of Frege, that arithmetic claims can be translated into a
second-order logic in which the second-order variables range over
functions and concepts (as opposed to objects). In this way, commitment
to sets and other specifically mathematical objects can be eliminated,
and, this done, arithmetic may be considered a part of logic.
Field (cf. [2.42], [2.43]) offers what might be regarded as an
epistemological form of logicism. He is concerned to defend the claim
that mathematical knowledge is (at least largely) logical knowledge. He
also argues, contrary to Quine and Putnam (see below), that one can be a
realist with respect to physical theory without being a realist with
respect to mathematics.58
Field begins his argument that mathematical knowledge is logical
knowledge by defining mathematical knowledge as that knowledge
which ‘separates a person who knows a lot of mathematics from a
person who knows only a little mathematics’ (cf. 2.43], 511, 544). He then
goes on to claim that what separates these two kinds of knowers is ‘not
that the former knows many and the latter knows few’ (cf. [Ibid], 511–12;
544–5) of such claims as those for which mathematicians commonly
provide proofs of (i.e., of those claims, such that there are prime numbers
greater than a million). Rather, he goes on to say, ‘insofar as what
separates them is knowledge at all, it is knowledge of various different
sorts’ (Ibid.).
Some of it is empirical knowledge (e.g. knowledge of what is
commonly accepted by mathematicians and what they regard as the
proper starting point for an inquiry). The bulk, however, is knowledge
‘of a purely logical sort—even on the Kantian criterion of logic according
to which logic can make no existential commitments’ (Ibid., 512). In the
end, Field concludes, mathematical knowledge for the most part comes
down to knowledge that certain sentences do and certain other sentences
do not follow from a given set of axioms.
Generally, such knowledge would either be understood in a
semantical way (as knowledge about a class of models) or in a
syntactical way (as knowledge about a class of formal proofs or
derivations). Neither of these, however, qualifies as logical knowledge in
the sense Field wants. For since models are just a particular kind of
mathematical object, knowledge of them must be just a particular kind of
mathematical knowledge. Similarly for syntactical derivations. For
whether they are conceived of abstractly or concretely, they cannot be
known to exist on purely logical grounds, since (so the reasoning goes)
pure logic cannot assert the existence of things.
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Field is therefore obliged to offer an account of logical knowledge that
frees it of the need to be knowledge of semantical or syntactical entities.
What he comes up with is a kind of ‘modal’ analysis according to which
knowledge that a given sentence S follows from a given set of sentences A
is (i) knowledge that N (A→S) (where ‘Nφ’ is to be read as ‘it is logically
necessary that φ’), and knowledge that S does not follow from A is (ii)
knowledge that M(A&¬S) (where ‘Mφ’ is to be read as ‘it is logically
possible that φ’). The key feature of this analysis is that it treats the
sentences ‘A’ and ‘S’ as used rather than mentioned. Hence, it treats ‘N’ and
‘M’ as operators (indeed, logical operators) rather than predicates that
apply to entities like models, possible worlds and/or proofs.
Field identifies the chief task facing this analysis as that of accounting
for the applicability of mathematics to physics, and he divides this task
into two sub-tasks: namely: (a) that of showing the mathematics applied
to be ‘mathematically good’; and (b) that of showing that the physical
world is such as to make the mathematical theory particularly useful in
describing it. Both tasks must be carried out without appeal to the truth of
(any parts of) mathematics if Field’s logicist ideal is to be met, and it is to
the demonstration of this that Field’s writings on the subject (cf. 2.42 and
2.43) are primarily devoted.
There is much to question in Field’s argument (cf. [2.130], [2.115], [2.27];
but see also Field’s responses in [2.44] and [2.45]). For present purposes,
however, we shall restrict ourselves to a question concerning the overall
place of logical reasoning in mathematical proof. This, we noted earlier,
was a point of central concern in Kant’s mathematical epistemology, and
was taken over as a principal motivating factor of the intuitionist
epistemologies of Brouwer and Poincaré. Their belief, and the crux of
their disagreement with logicism, was that mathematical and logical
inference are fundamentally different—that the former is not only not
reducible to the latter, but that it is indeed antithetical to it. As Poincaré
put the point: mathematical reasoning has a kind of creative virtue that
distinguishes it from the epistemically more ‘sterile’ reasoning of logic (cf.
[2.99], 32–3); the logical reasoner’s grasp of mathematics is like the grasp
of elephanthood that naturalists would have were their knowledge to be
restricted entirely to what they had observed through microscopic
examination of their tissue.
When the logician shall have broken up each demonstration into a
multitude of elementary operations, all correct, he still will not
possess the whole reality; this I know not what which makes the
unity of the demonstration will completely escape him. In the
edifices built up by our masters, of what use to admire the work of
the mason if we cannot comprehend the plan of the architect? Now
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pure logic cannot give us this appreciation of the total effect; this
we must ask of intuition.
([2.101], 436)
Poincaré therefore believed in a distinctively mathematical kind of
reasoning. Without it one cannot account for the manifest differences in
epistemic condition which separate the logical from the genuinely
mathematical reasoner.59 He would, therefore, have denied Field’s
assumed starting point that mathematical knowledge is largely logical
knowledge and also his claim that the modalities pertaining to
mathematical reasoning are logical rather than distinctively mathematical
in character.60 Both points, we believe, raise serious challenges for Field’s
position.
Steven Wagner ([2.145]) offers both a different conception and a
different defence of logicism. He seeks to root mathematics in what he
takes to be the universal needs and urges of (ideally) rational agents.
His argument begins with the presumption of an idealized rational
enquirer who seeks not only bodily survival but also understanding.
He then goes on to say that counting is indispensable to such a being
both in the sense of being partially constitutive of that person’s
rationality and in the sense of being necessary to his or her
assimilation and processing of the elementary data of experience and
thought. Nobody, he maintains, can get by without answering a host of
‘How many?’ questions. Thus, the rational agent must develop a
system of counting.
From a system of counting there will eventually emerge a system of
calculation. This is so because (i) calculation is essentially a refinement of
counting (i.e. it functions to advance those cognitive and bodily ends that
are served by the capacity to count); and (ii) there is a rational urge to
improve those capacities that one possesses, but possesses in what is
perhaps only too rudimentary a form61.
Thus, from counting, the ideally rational agent passes to calculation.
And from calculation, the argument continues, he or she will pass to
something like number theory. This is due to the facts that (i) part of the
urge to understand consists of an urge to unify, simplify and generalize;
and (ii) efforts to unify, simplify and generalize one’s system of arithmetic
calculation will inevitably lead one to something like the arithmetic of the
natural numbers. Therefore elementary number theory may be described
as a kind of rational necessity.
As a final stage of rational development, the continued need and
capacity to simplify, unify and generalize will eventually lead the ideally
rational enquirer to some form of analysis and set theory. Wagner’s
‘second generation’ logicism thus states that (i) any ideally rational
enquirer will be under pressure to develop forms of arithmetic and set
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theory; and that (ii) the theorems of such theories as are developed in
response to this pressure will be analytic in the sense that any rational being
would have a reason to accept them.
Wagner’s position differs in significant ways from both the
metaphysical logicism of Frege and the methodological logicism of
Russell. It also differs from Field’s logicism—particularly over the
question of the in-principle dispensability of mathematics as a device for
processing empirical information. Field believes that it is dispensable.
Wagner, on the other hand, appeals to an alleged explanatory role that at
least certain mathematical theories (e.g. elementary number theory,
analysis and set theory) play, and he treats that explanatory role as part of
the ultimate justification for those theories. He thus treats mathematics as
ultimately indispensable for the full cognitive processing (i.e. the full
explanation) of empirical information.
Intuitionism
Turning finally to post-Brouwerian intuitionism, there are two main
developments to note: (i) the various attempts, initiated by Heyting’s
work, to formalize intuitionistic logic and mathematics and to develop it
into something roughly comparable in power to classical mathematics;
and (ii) the more recent attempts by Dummett and his followers to derive
a philosophical justification for intuitionism from a kind of
Wittgensteinian conception of the meanings of mathematical sentences.
Since (i) is only very loosely connected with philosophical concerns, we
shall say little about it here. The reader desiring a relatively up-to-date
presentation of technical findings may consult any of a number of recent
surveys (e.g. [2.4], [2.13], or [2.143]) of the subject. We shall confine our
discussion of (i) to the idea that seems to have been at the centre of
Heyting’s attempts to formalize intuitionistic reasoning; namely, the
supposed distinction between ‘a logic of existence’ and ‘a logic of
knowledge’—a distinction Heyting regarded as fundamental to
intuitionistic thought ([2.70], 107).
What Heyting meant by a ‘logic of existence’ is a logic of statements
about objects whose existence is to be understood as being independent of
human thought. Intuitionists, and other constructivists too, for the most
part, reject the idea of a realm of thought-independent mathematical
objects. Likewise, they reject the idea that mathematical propositions are
true or false independently of human thought. They hold, instead, the
view that mathematical propositions express the results of certain kinds of
mental constructions.62 A logic of such propositions—a ‘logic of
knowledge’, in Heyting’s terminology—is therefore one whose theorems
express relations between mental constructions; specifically, relations of
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latent containment among them (where one construction is taken latently
to contain another just in case going through the process of effecting the
one would automatically either effect the other or put one in a position to
effect it).
Given this general outlook, Heyting argued, there is no essential
difference between logical and mathematical theorems. Both serve
essentially to affirm that one has succeeded in performing mental acts
satisfying certain conditions. The former are distinguished only by their
relatively greater generality ([2.69], 1–12; [2.70], 107–8).
Intuitionist logic was thus intended by Heyting to serve as an
articulation of those most general patterns of latent containment relating
our mental mathematical constructions.63 Since, however, our mental
constructional activities constitute ‘a phenomenon of life, a natural
activity of man’ ([2.69], 9), containment relations between them are not
conceptually based but rather based on the relations which bind our
activities together behaviourally, as it were. Thus, a logical theorem to the
effect that we know a proof of A only if we know a proof of B would
express neither a conceptual connection between our knowledge of a
proof of A and our knowledge of a proof of B, nor, except per accidens, a
conceptual connection between A and B. Rather, it would express a
natural fact concerning our (perhaps idealized) mental constructional
life, namely, that it is characterized by a disposition to transform proofs
of A into proofs of B. As Heyting himself put it, ‘mathematics, from an
intuitionistic point of view, is a study of certain functions of the human
mind’ ([2.69], 10). As such, it is akin to history and the social sciences
(Ibid.).
Michael Dummett ([2.36], [2.37]) has offered both a different
conception and a different defence of intuitionism. He conceives it as a
view concerning what is to be regarded as the proper logic of
mathematics. He argues that an adequate account of the meanings of
mathematical propositions reveals that it is intuitionist logic (i.e. the logic
set out by Heyting) that is the proper logic of mathematics. This account
bears certain affinities to the views on meaning set out by Wittgenstein in
his Philosophical Investigations. In particular, like Wittgenstein’s view, it
equates the meaning of a sentence with its canonical use. In mathematics,
Dummett believes, canonical use consists in the role that an assertion
plays in the central activity of proof. Hence, to know the meaning of a
mathematical sentence is ultimately to know the conditions under which
it would be proved or refuted.64
Dummett’s intuitionism is thus far removed from that of Poincaré and
Brouwer both in substance and motive.65 Its defence is also, we believe,
open to certain doubts. Dummett argues that since (i) ‘that knowledge
which, in general, constitutes, the understanding of language…must be
implicit knowledge’ ([2.36], 217), and (ii) ‘implicit knowledge
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cannot…meaningfully be ascribed to someone unless it is possible to say
in what the manifestation of that knowledge consists—there must be an
observable difference between the behaviour or capacities of someone
who is said to have that knowledge and someone who is said to lack it’
(Ibid.)—that it therefore follows that (iii) ‘a grasp of the meaning of
a…statement must, in general, consist of a capacity to use that statement
in a certain way, or to respond in a certain way to its use by others’
(Ibid.).
Premiss (ii), we believe, is inappropriate as a premiss in an argument
for (iii). For it seems to beg the crucial question, namely, that concerning
whether implicit knowledge (and hence knowledge of meaning) is
ultimately to be taken as consisting in a capacity for behaviour or in, say,
something like one’s being in a mental or psychological or neural state
that underlies such behaviour. Everyone, it would seem, must agree that
(ii’) implicit knowledge cannot legitimately be ascribed to someone
unless such ascription is warranted by the best total explanation of his or
her observed behaviour.66 But (ii’) carries with it no guarantee that, as (ii)
requires, an ascription of implicit knowledge be traceable to some
specific piece or pieces of speaker behaviour or, indeed, that it will even
be traceable to the entire corpus of the speaker’s behaviour. Speaker
behaviour will, after all, typically underdetermine its best total
explanation. Nor is there any reason to believe in advance that the best
total explanation of the speaker’s behaviour will not differ from its rivals
in its ascriptions of implicit knowledge to the speaker.
Thus, to avoid begging the question, premiss (ii) of Dummett’s
argument would seemingly have to be replaced by something like (ii’).
Such replacement, however, would block valid passage to (iii), and (iii) is
at the heart of Dummett’s defence of intuitionism. To salvage his defence
would therefore seemingly require finding something like our (ii’) that
would (in the company of premiss (i), of course) validly imply (iii). It is
not at all clear that this can be done, however.67
As noted above, Dummett’s defence of intuitionism appeals to certain
ideas of Wittgenstein’s, or, at any rate, ideas that Dummett and others
have attributed to Wittgenstein. It would, however, we believe, be a
mistake to identify Wittgenstein’s ideas on the philosophy of
mathematics too closely with intuitionism.68 For though it does bear
affinities to those forms of constructivism which stress the autonomy of
mathematics as a human creation (where creation is understood to
consist ultimately of acts of will or decision), it also bears certain affinities
to a more conventionalist interpretation. Moreover, in the end, it resists
categorization as either a constructivist or a conventionalist philosophy.
Wittgenstein’s central idea seems to have been that there is a basic
kind of construction in mathematics known as a Beweissystem. A
Beweissytem is made up of proofs and theorems, but its theorems function
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as rules of logical syntax rather than descriptive truths concerning the
terms of the system. These rules constitute autonomous acts of will by
which are laid down the rules according to which we agree to play a
certain ‘language game’ involving the terms introduced by the system.
Mathematics as a whole, Wittgenstein maintained, is a ‘motley’ of such
local activities or games.
For Wittgenstein, then, mathematical proofs (including even the
simplest ones) do not play the role of compelling us to accept their
conclusions. Nor are mathematical propositions in any other way ‘forced’
upon us as being true. ‘Acceptance’ of a mathematical statement does not
therefore represent an acknowledgment of its truth, but rather represents
a decision on our part to count something as a convention of a certain
language game. Similarly, proof does not function to remove doubt
through penetration of the truth, but rather to exclude doubt as a logical
possibility through the establishment of a theorem as a norm governing a
certain language game.
Thus, though Wittgenstein saw mathematics as essentially a human
creation, he did not understand this in the descriptive way that
constructivists traditionally have understood it. Nor did his normative
conception of our mathematical creations lend itself to any of the usual
conventionalist interpretations. For those all call for the reduction of
mathematical truths to logical truths and this requires the ‘co-operation’
of the logical forms of mathematical truths, so to speak (since there are
logical forms that a statement might have that would prohibit it from
being reducible to a logical truth).
Logical form does not, however, appear to form the same kind of
constraint on the institution of norms or rules. Moreover, even if it did,
there is a big difference between a statement’s being a logical truth and its
being a norm of logical syntax. The former has to do with whether a
statement passes a certain test of truth invariance (i.e. that it be stable
under a certain variety of different semantical interpretations of its
semantically variable parts), while the latter has to do with whether
something is to be seen as one of the rules constituting a certain rule-
governed activity. Sentences failing the requisite tests of the truth-
invariance test could none the less, it seems, still at least in principle play
the role of rules of a linguistic game. Consequently, it seems that
Wittgenstein is not well classified as a traditional conventionalist, though
there is a conventionalist element in his philosophy.69
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Later Developments
Among later developments not having primarily to do with the three
‘isms’, perhaps the major one is that stemming from Quine’s criticism of
the logical empiricists in the 1940s and 1950s mentioned above. This
criticism resulted in a new empiricist philosophy of mathematics shorn of
even those few Kantian ideas that were retained by the logical
empiricists—and this new empiricism has been perhaps the dominant
theme in the philosophy of mathematics ever since.
The logical empiricists, as was noted earlier, retained Kant’s
commitment to the necessity of mathematical truth (though they
conceived of this necessity as essentially consisting in immunity from
empirical revision). Indeed, it was precisely for the sake of
accommodating this ‘datum’ of mathematical epistemology that the
logical empiricists put so much effort into nurturing and preserving the
Kantian distinction between analytic and synthetic judgements. In their
view, only such a distinction could sustain the division of mathematical
judgements into those that are and those that are not subject to empirical
revision.
Quine (see [2.108], [2.109]) and Putnam (see [2.105], [2.106]) swept even
this final Kantian datum aside, offering instead a general empiricist
epistemology in which all judgements, those of mathematics and logic as
well as those of the natural sciences, are seen as evidentially connected to
sensory phenomena and therefore subject to empirical revision. Central to
their argument was an observation borrowed from Duhem; namely, that in
order to connect science with sensory evidence, logic and mathematics are
inevitably required.70 They are therefore part of what gets confirmed when
connection between a theory and a confirming phenomenon is made, and
part of what gets disconfirmed when connection between a theory and a
disconfirming phenomenon is made. They are, in sum, of an epistemological
piece with natural science and, so, broadly speaking, empirical.
To accommodate the lingering conviction that there is at least some
difference regarding sensitivity to empirical evidence between
mathematics and logic, on the one hand, and natural science, on the other,
Quine argued that while both are subject to empirical revision, the precise
extent or degree to which this is true is different in the two cases. He
backed this view with a pragmatic conception of rational belief revision,
and a view of the totality of our cognitive holdings according to which it
forms a ‘web’ whose various parts are interdependent and ordered with
respect to their importance to the preservation of the general structure of
the web. At the centre of the web lie logic and mathematics, and the beliefs
of natural science and common sense for the most part fan out from this
towards the periphery where the entire scheme encounters sensory
experience.
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According to Quine’s pragmatic conception of belief revision, it is to be
governed by a concern to at all times maximize our overall predictive and
explanatory power. A scheme of beliefs which optimizes predictive and
explanatory power also optimizes our ability cognitively to cope with our
environment(s), and production of such a scheme is generally aided by
policies of revision which minimize, both in scope and severity, the
changes that are made to a previously successful conceptual scheme in
response to recalcitrant experience. If the beliefs of mathematics and logic
are therefore typically less subject to empirical revision than are the beliefs
of natural science and common sense, this is because revising them
generally (albeit not, in Quine’s view, invariably) tends towards greater
upheaval in the conceptual scheme than does revision of our common
sense and natural scientific beliefs.71 Quine therefore accommodates the
traditional Kantian datum that mathematics is necessary by treating logic
and mathematics not as being altogether impervious to empirical
revision, but only as being more so, on average, than either natural science
or common sense.72 Quine thus merges the epistemologies of mathematics
and natural science into a single, albeit quantitatively differentiated,
empiricist whole.
In merging mathematics and science into a single explanatory system,
Quine’s empiricism also induces a realist or platonist view of
mathematics. It sees the world as populated by those entities needed to
staff the best theory of the totality of our experience. These include not
only the medium-sized objects of ordinary experience and the theoretical
entities of our best current physical science, but also mathematical
entities, since, as was noted above, mathematical claims play an integral
role in our best total theory of experience (see [2.108], [2.109], [2.105] and
[2.106]).
Quine’s views have been challenged on various grounds. Field, for
example, has challenged Quine’s claim that the roles played by natural
science and mathematics are essentially the same and cannot be
differentiated. On his view there is an immense difference between the
role played by mathematics and the role played by natural science in our
overall conceptual scheme. Mathematics, he believes functions basically
as a logic, and its theorems do not make claims that are substantive in the
way that the laws of natural science are.
Another criticism is that Quine’s epistemology leaves unaccounted for
those parts of mathematics that are not somehow involved in the
explanation of sensory experience. It is not clear, however, how serious an
objection this is since it is not clear how much, if any, of even the least
elementary, most abstract mathematics would play no contributory role in
the simplification and explanation of sensory experience.
A final criticism is that by Parsons, who has argued that treating the
elementary arithmetical parts of mathematics (e.g. the truth that 7 +5=12)
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as being on an epistemological par with the hypotheses of theoretical
physics fails to capture an epistemologically important difference
regarding the different kinds of evidentness or ‘obviousness’ displayed
by the two (see [2.95], 151). The kind of evidentness displayed by an
elementary arithmetic proposition like ‘7+5=12’ is not the same as that
displayed by even such highly confirmed physical hypotheses as ‘The
earth moves about the sun’, says Parsons. To put it roughly, the latter is
more highly derivative than the former. Consequently, Parsons concludes,
it is not plausible to regard the two claims as based on essentially the
same kind of evidence and, so, the empiricist epistemology of Quine and
Putnam must be regarded as being of questionable adequacy for at least
the more elementary parts of mathematics.
In addition to Quine and Putnam, there have been others who have
suggested different kinds of mergings of mathematics with the natural
sciences. Of those, some have been empiricists, others not. Kitcher, for
instance, has presented a generally empiricist epistemology for
mathematics in which history and community are important
epistemological forces (see [2.89]). Gödel, too, offered an epistemology in
which mathematical justification was conceived along lines structurally
similar to those of justification in the natural sciences.73 In his own
words:
despite their remoteness from sense experience, we do have
something like a perception also of the objects of set theory, as is
seen from the fact that the axioms force themselves upon us as
being true. I don’t see any reason why we should have less
confidence in this kind of perception, i.e., in mathematical
intuition, than in sense perception…
It should be noted that mathematical intuition need not be
conceived of as a faculty giving an immediate knowledge of the
objects concerned. Rather it seems that, as in the case of physical
experience, we form our ideas also of those objects on the basis of
something else which is immediately given. Only this something
else is not, or not primarily, the sensations. That something besides
the sensations actually is immediately given follows…from the fact
that even our ideas referring to physical objects contain
constituents qualitatively different from sensations or mere
combinations of sensations, e.g., the concept of object itself,
whereas, on the other hand, by our thinking we cannot create any
qualitatively new elements, but only reproduce and combine those
that are given. Evidently, the ‘given’ in underlying mathematics is
closely related to the abstract elements contained in our empirical
ideas. It by no means follows, however, that the data of this second
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kind, because they cannot be associated with actions of certain
things upon our sense organs, are something purely subjective, as
Kant asserted. Rather they, too, may represent an aspect of
objective reality, but, as opposed to the sensations, their presence in
us may be due to another kind of relationship between ourselves
and reality.
([2.65], 483–4)
Gödel then went on to claim (Ibid., 485) that this use of and need for
intuition obtains both in high-level abstract areas of mathematics such as
set theory, and in the elementary areas of mathematics such as finitary
number theory. He noted, moreover, that even without appeal to
intuition, mathematics, like the natural sciences, makes use of what are
essentially inductive means of justification.
even disregarding the intrinsic necessity of some new axiom, and
even in case it has no intrinsic necessity at all, a probable decision
about its truth is possible also in another way, namely, inductively
by studying its ‘success’. Success here means fruitfulness in
consequences, in particular in ‘verifiable’ consequences, i.e.,
consequences demonstrable without the new axiom, whose proofs
with the help of the new axiom, however, are considerably simpler
and easier to discover, and make it possible to contract into one
proof many different proofs. The axioms for the system of real
numbers, rejected by the intuitionists, have in this sense been
verified to some extent, owing to the fact that analytical number
theory frequently allows one to prove number-theoretical theorems
which, in a more cumbersome way, can subsequently be verified
by elementary methods. A much higher degree of verification than
that, however, is conceivable. There might exist axioms so
abundant in their verifiable consequences, shedding so much light
upon a whole field, and yielding such powerful methods for
solving problems…that, no matter whether or not they are
intrinsically necessary, they would have to be accepted at least in
the same sense as any well-established physical theory.
(Ibid, 477)
Higher-level mathematical hypotheses are thus taken to be inductively
justified by the simplifying, or, more generally, explanatory effects
they have on lower-level mathematical truths. In a later remark,
Gödel extended this characterization of inductive justification in
mathematics to include not only the ‘fruitful’ (i.e. simplificatory and
explanatory) organization of lower-level mathematical results, but
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also the ‘fruitful’ organization of principles and facts of physics
(Ibid., 485).74
This extension is significant because it makes a place in Gödel’s
mathematical epistemology for what is essentially empirical justification
of mathematical truths. This does not, however, make him an empiricist
like Quine. For Gödel allowed only that some of our knowledge of
mathematical truths might arise from empirical sources. He remained
staunchly opposed to any suggestion that all mathematical justification
must or even can ultimately rest on sensory experience. Indeed, he
described the empiricist view of mathematics as too ‘absurd’ to be
seriously maintained (see p. 16 of the manuscript of his Gibbs lecture).
More positively, he maintained that there is a fundamental epistemic
phenomenon (viz., that of certain axioms—including certain high-level
set theoretical axioms—‘forcing’ themselves upon us as ‘being true’) that
cannot be accounted for by an empiricist epistemology for mathematics.
This same phenomenon is apparently also that which caused Gödel to
reject idealism and accept a Platonist conception of mathematics. In our
estimation, neither this phenomenon nor the related question of its status
as a ‘datum’ for the philosophy of mathematics have received the
attention they deserve.
Both the empiricist Platonism of Quine and the non-empiricist
Platonism of Gödel have been important influences on recent work in the
field. So, too, has been an argument given by Benacerraf in the early 1970s
(see [2.6]). According to that argument, mathematical epistemology faces
a general dilemma. It must, on the one hand, give a satisfactory account of
the truth of mathematics and, on the other, offer a satisfactory account of
how mathematics can be known. This constitutes a dilemma, in
Benacerraf’s opinion, because while to get a satisfactory account of the
truth of mathematics seemingly requires that we bring abstract objects
into the picture as referents of the singular terms used in mathematical
discourse, to get a satisfactory account of mathematical knowledge
seemingly requires that we avoid such reference. His argument makes use
of the following key claims: (i) the semantics for mathematical language
should be continuous with the semantics for non-mathematical language;
(ii) the deep logical form of a mathematical expression should not be
treated as too different from its surface grammatical form; (iii) the
semantics for non-mathematical language is referential; and (iv) the best
referential semantics for mathematical language uses abstract objects as
referents.
As a result of the alleged need to construe the semantics of
mathematical language as referential in character, we are obliged to see
the grounds of truth of a mathematical sentence as residing in the
properties of those abstract objects to which its referring terms make
reference. Thus, for example, we are obliged to say that what makes ‘7 +
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5=12’ true are the properties of the abstract objects 7, 5 and 12, the
characteristics of the addition operation as an operation on abstract
objects, and the features of the identity relation as a relation between
abstract objects.
On the other hand, any epistemology for mathematics that is to avoid
susceptibility to Gettier-type problems must link the grounds of truth of a
mathematical sentence with the grounds of belief in it. In other words, if a
given belief is to count as genuine knowledge, there must be a certain
causal relationship between that which makes it true and our state of
belief in it. This causes a dilemma because there is seemingly no way of
securing the aforementioned causal connection while at the same time
securing a reasonable referential semantics for mathematical discourse.
There are mathematical epistemologies—in particular, various Platonist
epistemologies—which allow for a plausible account of the truth of
mathematical sentences. And there are mathematical epistemologies (e.g.
various formalist epistemologies) which allow for a plausible account of
how we might come to know mathematical sentences. There is, however,
no known way of securing both a plausible account of mathematical truth
and a plausible account of mathematical knowledge.
A great deal of recent work in the philosophy of mathematics has been
devoted to trying to resolve this dilemma. So, for example, there are Field
(see [2.42]) and Hellmann (see [2.68]), both of which offer anti-Platonist
resolutions of the dilemma, and Maddy (see [2.92]), who attempts to work
out an epistemology which is at once Platonistic and yet naturalistic. To
date there is no general consensus on which approach is the more
plausible.75
An earlier argument of Benacerraf’s (see [2.5]) on another topic has
been similarly influential in shaping recent developments. Perhaps more
than any other single source, this paper has served as the inspiration of
that recent position known as ‘structuralism’. Applied to mathematics
generally, structuralism is the view that
In mathematics… we do not have objects with an ‘internal’
composition arranged in structures, we have only structures. The
objects of mathematics, that is, the entities which our mathematical
constants and quantifiers denote, are structureless points or
positions in structures. As positions in structures, they have no
identity or features outside of a structure.
([2.113], 530)76
Such a view, Resnik claims (Ibid., p. 529), is in keeping with the fact that
‘no mathematical theory can do more than determine its objects up to
isomorphism’, a fact which seems to have led mathematicians
increasingly to the view that (i) ‘mathematics is concerned with structures
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involving objects and not with the “internal” nature of the objects
themselves’ (Ibid.), and that (ii) we are not ‘given’ mathematical objects in
isolation, but rather only in structures.77
Benacerraf himself applied the idea only to arithmetic, and, in
particular, to the question, raised by Frege and others, of the ‘deeper’
ontological characteristics of the individual numbers. Frege, as is well
known, held the view that numbers are objects. Benacerraf opposed
this, arguing that such questions as ‘Are the individual numbers really
sets?’ are spurious. ‘Questions of the identification of the referents of
number words should be dismissed as misguided in just the way that a
question about the referents of the parts of a ruler would be seen as
misguided.’ ([2.5], 292). He then went on to complement this by noting
that:
‘Objects’ do not do the job of numbers singly; the whole system
performs the job or nothing does. I therefore argue…that numbers
could not be objects…; for there is no more reason to identify any
individual number with any one particular object than with any
other.
…in giving the properties of numbers…you merely
characterize an abstract structure…and the ‘elements’ of the
structure have no properties other than those relating them to
other ‘elements’ of the same structure.
([Ibid., 290–1)
The primary motivation for such a view, apart from the desire for a more
descriptively adequate account of mathematics, is apparently
epistemological in nature. Knowledge of the characteristics of
individual abstract objects would seem to require naturalistically
inexplicable powers of cognition. Knowledge of at least some (e.g. finite)
structures, on the other hand, could conceivably be explained as the
result of applying such classical empiricist means of cognition as
abstraction to observable physical complexes. Such abstracted structures
would then become part of the general scientific framework and, as
such, they could be extended and generalized in all manner of ways as
the search for the simplest and most highly unified overall conceptual
scheme is pursued.
Though Benacerraf and the other recent structuralists take no note of
the fact, the basic idea behind their position enjoyed widespread
popularity among philosophers of mathematics in the late nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries. Indeed, Dedekind’s essay The Nature and
Meaning of Number ([2.25], section 73) contains an expression of the same
basic idea on which the argument of Benacerraf [2.5] is centred. There
Dedekind writes:
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If in the consideration of a simply infinite system N set in order
by a transformation we entirely neglect the special character of
the elements; simply retaining their distinguishability and taking
into account only the relations to one another in which they are
placed by the order-setting transformation , then are these
elements called natural numbers or ordinal numbers or simply
numbers, and the base element is called the base-number of the
number-series N. With reference to this freeing the elements from
every other content (abstraction) we are justified in calling
numbers a free creation of the human mind. The relations or laws
which are…always the same in all ordered simply infinite
systems, whatever names may happen to be given to the
individual elements…form the first object of the science of numbers
or arithmetic.78
Similarly, Weyl contains a striking expression—indeed, a strong
generalization—of the structuralist idea that mathematical objects have
no mathematically important features beyond those they possess as
elements of structures. He writes: ‘A science can only determine its
domain of investigation up to an isomorphism mapping. In particular it
remains quite indifferent as to the ‘essence’ of its objects. The idea of
isomorphism demarcates the self-evident insurmountable boundary of
cognition’ [2.148], 25–6.
Similar, too, were ideas voiced by Hilbert (see, correspondence with
Frege in 1899, [2.71] the Paris address of 1900 [2.72] and also by
Bernays ([2.9]).79
Structuralism as a general philosophy of mathematics is criticized by
Parsons [2.98]. There it is argued that there must be some mathematical
objects for which structuralism is ‘not the whole truth’ (Ibid., 301). The
objects of which Parsons speaks are those he refers to as ‘quasiconcrete’.
These are so-called because they are directly ‘instantiated’ or
‘represented’ by concrete objects. Examples are geometrical figures,
symbols (construed as types) whose instances are written marks or
uttered sounds, and the so-called ‘stroke numerals’ and the like of
Hilbert’s finitary arithmetic. Such quasi-concrete entities are among the
most elementary mathematical objects there are and they are therefore of
considerable importance to the foundations of mathematics. Yet they
cannot be treated in a purely structuralist way, because their
‘representational’ function cannot be reduced to the purely
intrastructural relations that they bear to other objects within a given
system.
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CONCLUSION
As noted in the introduction, philosophy of mathematics in this century
has been centred on the problematic laid down for the subject by Kant,
which is one of the three most important influences. The other two are the
discovery of non-Euclidean geometries and the rapid development of
symbolic logic.
For the first three decades of the century, the Kantian problematic was
for the most part understood in pretty much the way Kant himself had
thought of it. That is, necessity was understood as imperviousness to
empirical revision, and substantiality was understood as a kind of
epistemic non-triviality. What differentiated the rival philosophies of this
period, primarily, were the different responses they gave to the discovery
of non-Euclidean geometries. Here, three basic alternatives eventually
came to be articulated.
The first of these, developed chiefly by Frege, attempted to preserve the
basic Kantian judgement that both geometry and arithmetic are necessary.
At the same time, however, it sought to distinguish two different kinds of
necessity, one for arithmetic, the other for geometry. This it did in
response to the discovery of non-Euclidean geometries, which it regarded
as having revealed a fundamental asymmetry between geometry and
arithmetic—namely, that though there are, at least at the level of
conceptual possibility, alternative geometries, there are not alternative
arithmetics. Arithmetical thinking was therefore thought to be a more
pervasive part of rational thought than is geometrical thinking. Giving a
proper account of this asymmetry then came to be seen as the primary
duty of a philosophy of mathematics.
The second alternative, favoured by various of the early constructivists,
modified the basic Kantian judgement that both geometry and arithmetic
are necessary, and maintained instead that only arithmetic is necessary. It
therefore also, like the first alternative, regarded the discovery of non-
Euclidean geometries as having revealed a fundamental asymmetry
between spatial geometry and arithmetic. Unlike the first alternative,
however, it took this discovery to be best accounted for by reducing the
truly mathematical part of geometry to arithmetic and rejecting its
distinctively spatial part as being of an a posteriori rather than an a priori
character (which thus means that it is an object external to the human
mind). Arithmetic, on the other hand, since it admitted of no alternatives
like those which non-Euclidean geometries constitute for geometry, was
to be seen as arising from a source (viz., a very general kind of temporal
intuition) which was wholly internal to the human mind and, so, a priori
in nature.
The third alternative, developed by Hilbert, reacted to the discovery of
non-Euclidean geometry in a different way still. It sought to put them to
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the test in order to determine how deeply into geometrical thinking they
truly penetrate. The original non-Euclidean geometries were only shown
to be independent of Euclid’s axioms for plane geometry. They therefore
left open the possibility that there are unknown and/or articulated
features of the Euclidean plane such that, were they to be registered as
axioms, the axiom of parallels would follow from them (together with the
other axioms). They also left open the possibility that, even supposing the
axioms of the Euclidean plane to be ‘complete’ in the sense just alluded to,
the axioms needed to move from a description of the Euclidean plane to a
description of Euclidean space are such that the axiom of parallels would
follow from them (in conjunction with the other axioms), and would
therefore not signify an independent feature of Euclidean space.
It was with the resolution of these matters that Hilbert was concerned.
He therefore sought to produce a set of axioms so ‘complete’ that no
axiom could be added to them without turning them into an inconsistent
theory. In order to do this, he turned to a certain kind of continuity
principle (viz., his so-called Vollständigkeitsaxiom) which, in Kantian
fashion, he reckoned to belong to the domain of pure reason (or what
Hilbert referred to as ‘ideal’ thought) rather than the domain of
judgement (which Hilbert referred to as ‘real’ thought). This distinction
between real and ideal elements in our mathematical thinking became the
cornerstone of Hilbert’s mathematical epistemology, both for arithmetic
and, we believe, for geometry.
Hilbert did not, therefore, affirm the necessity of either arithmetic or
geometry in any simple, straightforward way. Rather, he distinguished
two different types of necessity operating both within arithmetic and
geometry. One of these—that which attaches to the ‘ideal’ parts of
arithmetic and geometry—he identified with the kind of necessity that
attached to Kant’s faculty of reason; a kind of necessity borne of the
manner in which our minds inevitably work. The other, that applying to
the so-called ‘real’ parts of mathematics, he saw as consisting in the
presumed fact that all our thought assumes as a pre-condition the
apprehension of certain elementary spatial features of simple concrete
objects (cf. [2.76], 376; [2.78], 383, 385).
This, roughly, was Hilbert’s complex conception of the a priority of
mathematics. Clearly, it represented a significant departure from
Kant’s ‘idealist’ explanation of necessity as residing in the supposed
inevitable tendencies of our minds to couch all experience in temporal
terms, and all spatial experience in Euclidean terms. Clearly, too, it
represented a significant departure from the ideas of the logicists and
intuitionists. Its response to the discovery of non-Euclidean geometries
(and such related discoveries concerning intuition of time as Einstein’s
theory of relativity) was not to posit an essential epistemological
asymmetry between arithmetical and geometrical knowledge, as did
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(the original forms of) both logicism and intuitionism. Rather, or so it
seems to us, it was to try and bring both under the authority of a single
type of proto-geometric intuition concerning our apprehension of the
elementary shapes or forms of concrete figures.
The 1930s witnessed the demise of Hilbert’s Kantian programme at
the hands of Gödel’s theorems. Frege’s Kantian logicism had earlier
been vanquished by Russell’s paradox, and the Kantian philosophies
of the intuitionists, too, were under assault from both philosophical
quarters (where their idealism was called into question) and
mathematical quarters (where their ability to support a significant
body of mathematics remained in doubt). Of the programmes of the
early period, perhaps Russell’s non-Kantian form of logicism remained
most intact, being sustained chiefly through its embodiment of the
recent advances in symbolic logic and its selection as the preferred
philosophy of mathematics of the then-influential logical empiricist
school.
Yet, even though the positive ideas of Kant’s mathematical
philosophy had largely been abandoned by the 1930s, his basic
apparatus remained in effect until the early 1950s. It was only with
Quine’s attack on the analytic/synthetic distinction of the positivists
that its influence, too, began to slip.80 The dominant trend in the
philosophy of mathematics since then, if, indeed, there has been one,
has been that of empiricism: an empiricism which denies that there is a
difference in kind between the necessity of mathematics and that of the
rest of our judgements; an empiricism which sees mathematics as
governed by the same basic inductive methodology as governs the
natural sciences; an empiricism which sees mathematical inference as
reducible to logical inference. The ultimate adequacy of this overall
empiricist approach as an explanation of the ‘data’ of mathematical
epistemology, however, remains unclear. So, too, does the justification
of its view of what these data are. Indeed, the problem of determining
what are the data of the philosophy of mathematics is, I would suggest,
among the more serious problems facing the subject as the century
draws to a close.
NOTES
1 Years later, in his only philosophical essay (see [2.91]), Kronecker would
quote this view with approbation.
2 Ironically, it is probably the continued development of logic in the latter three-
quarters of this century that has contributed as much as anything to the
blindness of present-day philosophy of mathematics to the Kantian question
of whether mathematical proof can rightly make use of logical inferences.
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There are, of course, reasons for this new orientation. There are also, however,
some drawbacks as we see it. Cf. Detlefsen [2.28], [2.30], [2.33] and Tragesser
[2.142] for attempts to revitalize the Kantian question.
3 In speaking of a logicism ‘like Russell’s’, we mean a logicism which was
applied to the whole of mathematics and not just its arithmetic portion. The
very different logicisms of Frege and Dedekind would not have been nearly
so attractive to the logical empiricists because, though they would have
allowed an analytic treatment of arithmetic judgement, they would not have
allowed this account to be extended to geometry. The logical empiricists
would therefore have had to deal with the seeming ‘necessity’ of geometrical
judgement in some other way.
4 This it did by allowing them to treat mathematical judgement as analytic
judgement, which they then treated as arising from the general phenomenon
of linguistic convention. More on this later.
5 It should be noted, however, that the logicism of Frege and Dedekind raised a
challenge to Kant on this score too. For it programmatically required that all
reasoning appearing in a mathematical proof be reducible to logical reasoning
and, indeed, logical reasoning of a sort so clear and perspicuous that it could
not conceal anything of a non-logical nature.
6 Cf. [2.47], 50. [My translation.]
7 Frege expanded a bit further on this idea in section 24, where similar ideas in
Locke and Leibniz are cited. See also [2.50].
8 In a later remark (cf. the introduction to [2.52], xv), Frege clarified further the
connection between the laws of logic and the laws of thought alluded to here.
‘The laws of logic have a special claim to be called “laws of thought” only
because we recognize them as the most general laws, which prescribe
universally the way in which thought ought to proceed when it proceeds at
all.’ (my translation).
9 This criticism of Kant would apply even more powerfully to Leibniz, since the
latter acknowledged only one basic source of knowledge (namely, reason) and
saw all truth as analytic in character (and, so qualitatively the same). It seems
likely therefore that Frege would not have found Leibniz’s mathematical
epistemology as satisfying as Kant’s—and this despite the fact that Leibniz
advocated a kind of logicist view.
10 Frege says (cf. [2.49], the first footnote in section 3) that he has tried to capture
what earlier writers, and, in particular, Kant, had in mind in their usages of
the above terms. This is difficult to accept at face value, however, since Frege
insists that both the a priori/a posteriori distinction and the analytic/synthetic
distinction ‘concern…not the content of a judgement but the justification for
making the judgement’ (Ibid., section 3), whereas Kant held only that the
former is a distinction of this sort. Furthermore, Frege later (cf. [2.49], section
88) says that Kant underestimated the potential epistemic productivity of
analytic judgements because he ‘defined them too narrowly’. What he seems
to mean by this is that Kant, because of his impoverished Aristotelian notion
of logical form, defined analyticity only for subject-predicate propositions,
whereas, of course, the notion applies to a much wider class of propositions.
There is, however, no indication that Frege saw Kant as having intended the
analytic/synthetic distinction to concern the content of a judgement rather
than its justification.
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It should also be noted that in the event that canonical proofs are allowed
to be non-unique, the definitions of syntheticity and a posteriority would
have to be changed to require that every canonical proof involves recourse to
a truth of a special science (resp. involves an appeal to facts). Likewise, the
definitions of analyticity and a priority would have to be changed to state that
some canonical proof contain only general logical laws and definitions (resp.
only general laws which neither need nor admit of proof).
11 Cf. [2.49], section 14.
12 Though Frege does not cite the original source of his inspiration, the main
idea expressed clearly reverberates a remark from the preface of the first
edition of the Critique of Pure Reason: ‘in an inventory of that which is acquired
by us through Pure Reason…nothing can escape us. For whatever reason
brings forth (hervorbringt) entirely of itself cannot be hidden from it’ (xx).
13 Cf. also section 27 where he says that numbers are neither ‘spatial and
physical…nor yet subjective like ideas, but non-sensible and objective’ and
that ‘objectivity cannot…be based on any sense-impression, which as an
affectation of our mind is entirely subjective, but only…on reason’.
14 Cf. [2.49], sections 69, 107.
15 On this latter, compare [2.49], section 48.
16 Frege’s belief in the priority of concepts cannot, however, completely explain
his opposition to Kant. For Kant as is well-known, believed in a form (as
opposed to a substance or content) of intuition which ‘precedes in my
subjectivity all actual impressions through which I am affected by objects’ (cf.
[2.85], section 9, my translation) and held it to be the basis of our mathematical
knowledge. He was therefore not committed to a conception of the intuitional
basis of our mathematical knowledge according to which it rests on intuitions
of particular sensible things. Why, then, did Frege feel that he needed
concepts rather than merely Kant’s forms of intuition? This, I believe, is a
difficult question to answer. Such answers as might be given would appear to
require recourse to Frege’s belief that (i) concepts possess special unifying
power (and, in particular, unifying power that is superior to that possessed by
intuition generally); and that (ii) number is applicable to more than just that
which can be sensed. Kant, by contrast, held that
all mathematical cognition has this pecularity: that it must first
exhibit its concept in intuitional form… Without this,
mathematics cannot take a single step. Its judgements are
therefore always intuitional, whereas philosophy must make do
with discursive judgements from mere concepts. It may illustrate
its judgements by means of a visual form, but it can never derive
them from such a form.
(Ibid., section 7).
17 Of course, quite apart from worries concerning its consistency, one might
wonder how Rule V could be defended as a logical principle. In his defence,
Frege employed his well-known distinction between sense and reference
(which is related to his belief in the priority of concepts to their extensions)
and constructed an argument to the effect that the two sides of the
biconditional in Rule V have the same sense.
18 For more on this, as well as some examples, see [2.49], sections 64–66, 70, 88, 91.
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19 Frege gives an example of the different ways of carving up content in
section 70 of [2.49]. He also discusses it in section 9 of [2.48], where one of
the example he considers is the proposition of ‘Cato killed Cato’. He
remarks there that if we think of this proposition as allowing for
replacement of the first instance of ‘Cato’, we see it as formed from the
propositional function ‘x killed Cato’. If we think of it as allowing for the
replacement of the last instance of ‘Cato’, we see it as formed from the
function ‘x was killed by Cato’. And, if we see it as allowing for the
replacement of both occurrences of ‘Cato’ at once, we see it as formed from
the function ‘x killed y’. No single one of these ways of seeing the
proposition is necessary for its apprehension. Hence, each might in its turn
be thought of as a ‘recarving’ of its content.
20 Still, as was mentioned earlier, since Russell believed that the whole of
what is ordinarily regarded as pure mathematics can be reduced to
(second-order Peano) arithmetic, the distance between him and Frege on
this point is not so great as might at first sight appear (cf. Russell [2.123],
275–9 (esp. 276); [2.120], 157–8, 259–60). It should be noted, too, that in
these passages, Russell describes the work of the ‘arithmetizers’ of
mathematics (e.g. Dedekind and Weierstrass) as being of greater
importance to the cause of logicism than the discovery of non-Euclidean
geometries.
21 Even here, of course, one sees vestiges of Kant. For he, too, conceived of
reason as impelling one towards ever greater generality in science. He did
not, however, think of this procedure as tending towards a terminus—a most
general science (the TRUE science!), as it were. Still less did he think of it as
tending towards a science of logic.
22 Hereinafter we will refer to this as Russell [2.120]. The pagination cited is
that of the seventh impression of the second edition, which appeared in
1956.
23 Russell distinguished the level of generality where all constants are logical
constants from what we are hero referring to as the level of maximum
generality. The latter was seen as requiring the former. But in addition, it
was taken to require an identification of what Russell referred to as the
‘principles’ of logic; that is, the most basic truths from which all other truths
whose only constants are logical constants can be derived by logical means
(cf. [2.120], 10).
24 Russell elaborated on this idea and extended a modified version of it to the
case of the empirical sciences in [2.122] and [2.123].
25 Russell [2.123], 273–4. Page numbers are those of the reprint in [2.125].
26 It is not obvious that Russell’s condition is weaker. Indeed, it is not weaker
at all if a suitably stiff standard of individuation for propositions is
adopted. For example, if one were to adopt a criterion of individuation
which makes all logically equivalent sentences express the same
proposition, then Russell’s criterion would become considerably more
demanding than he wanted it to be. Moreover, the problems intensify the
broader one’s notion of logical equivalence becomes. Hence, for the
logicist, who requires a very broad conception of logical equivalence, a
criterion of propositional identity that identifies logically equivalent
propositions would make it virtually impossible for a standard of
inferential epistemic productivity like Russell’s to succeed. Russell did not
explicitly propose any standard of individuation for propositions in his
discussion of synthetic inference, but his remarks suggest that he would
not have accepted a standard which implies the identity of logically
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equivalent sentences (at least for any broad conception of logical
equivalence).
27 We must leave for another occasion the explanation of how this differs from
Kant’s understanding of reason as a regulative ideal that leads us to ever
greater generality (i.e. unity) in our judgements.
28 The reader will recall that in 1886 Kronecker famously remarked that while
God made the whole numbers, everything else is the work of man (Die ganzen
Zahlen hat der liebe Gott gemacht, alles andere ist Mensckenwerk). How do we
square that Kronecker with the Kronecker who accepted Gauss’s view that
the numbers are the product of the human intellect and that geometry is not?
The answer would seem to lie in a distinction Kronecker made between
arithmetic in a ‘narrower’ sense and arithmetic in a ‘wider’ sense. By the
former, he meant the arithmetic of the natural numbers, while by the latter he
meant to include algebra and analysis as well (cf. [2.91], 265). A resolution of
the apparent conflict can be obtained by taking the work of God to be
arithmetic in the narrower sense and taking the ‘everything else’ of
Kronecker’s remark to refer not to geometry and mechanics and the like, but
to arithmetic in the wider sense.
29 Page references to Brouwer’s papers are to the reprinting in [2.20].
30 Poincaré, another early constructivist, about whom we shall have more to say
later, differed both from Kant, Brouwer and the other early constructivists on
this point. He maintained that ‘the axioms of geometry…are neither synthetic
a priori judgements nor experimental facts… They are conventions…merely
disguised definitions’ (cf. [2.99], pt. II, ch. 3, section 10). For a statement (not
wholly accurate, in my view) of some of the other differences, see [2.21], 2–4.
31 Poincaré, along with Borel and Lebesgue, was described by Brouwer (cf.
[2.21], 2–3), as a ‘pre-intuitionist’. For present purposes, however, the alleged
differences between ‘pre-intuitionism’ and ‘intuitionism’ are of no
importance.
32 Cf. ‘Revue de metaphysique et de morale’ 14:17–34, 294–317, 627–50, 866–8;
17:451–82; 18:263–301; [2.121], 412–18, 15:141–3.
33 As he put it elsewhere, it is a mistake to believe in:
the possibility of extending one’s knowledge of truth by the
mental process of thinking, in particular thinking accompanied
by linguistic operations independent of experience called ‘logical
reasoning’, which to a limited stock of ‘evidently’ true assertions
mainly founded on experience and sometimes called axioms,
contrives to add an abundance of further truths.
(Cf. [2.19], 113)
34 Brouwer, of course, believed that there can be significant differences
between the class of theorems provable from a given set S of propositions
by means of classical logic and those provable from S by means of
intuitionistic mathematical reasoning. He would not, however, have
maintained the same for the theorems provable via intuitionist logic from
S and the theorems provable by genuine mathematical reasoning from
S.Still, he saw an important difference between proving theorems by
genuine mathematical means and proving them by means of intuitionist
logic. Indeed, the central theme of his critique of classical mathematics
was that mathematical reasoning is distinct from logical reasoning
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generally, and not just from classical logical reasoning. For more on this,
see [2.28].
35 Poincaré was led to his intuitional conception of inference by his belief in
what he took to be a fundamental datum of mathematical epistemology;
namely, that the epistemic condition of a purely logical reasoner, who sees
none of the local architecture that creates the ‘channels’, as it were, of
mathematical inference, is different from that of the genuine mathematician
whose inferences reflect a grasp of these channels. Brouwer, in effect, held
much the same view. For he insisted that logical inference reflects only a grasp
of the channels of belief-movement provided for by the linguistic
representation of belief, whereas genuine mathematical inference moves
according to the channels provided by that constructional activity which itself
is constitutive of mathematics.
36 There are, however, foreshadowings of such a notion in the Christian
neoplatonists (e.g. Augustine, Boethius and Anselm) and also in Cusanus.
The latter even coined a term for the notion—visio intellectualis. Kant, too,
spoke of such a notion (cf. [2.86], 307, 311–12; and [2.87], vol., VIII, 389),
though he thought that only God and not humans could possess it.
37 As Kant said (cf. ist edn of [2.86] (which was published in 1781), 639,
[2.86], 667):
In whatever manner the understanding may have arrived at a
concept, the existence of its object is never, by any process of
analysis, discoverable within it; for the knowledge of the existence of
the object consists precisely in the fact that the object is posited in
itself, outside the mere thought of it.
38 The First Act of Intuitionism says that mathematics is to be ‘completely
separated…from mathematical language and hence from the phenomenon of
language itself described by theoretical logic’ ([2.21], 4–5).
39 ‘to exist in mathematics means: to be constructed’ ([2.15], 96). ‘Mathematics is
created by a free action’ (Ibid., 97).
40 Cf. [2.34] for a more detailed development of these and related matters.
41 Cf. [2.34] for a more detailed discussion of these matters.
42 Conclusive textual evidence that Hilbert intended to use finitary intuition as
the foundation for both our geometrical and our arithmetical knowledge may
not exist. If we are right, however, in thinking that this was Hilbert’s view,
then, he not only would have regarded both arithmetic and geometry as a
priori, but would have taken both as being based on the same a priori
intuition.
43 Cf. [2.74], 163, and [2.80], 32 for related remarks.
44 Examples of unproblematic real propositions are variable-free equations of
arithmetic and prepositional compounds formed from them. The sentences in
this class can be manipulated according to the full range of classical logical
operations without leading outside the reals. As examples of problematic real
propositions, Hilbert offered the following: (i) for all non-negative integers a,
a+1=1+a; and (ii) there is a prime number greater than g but less than g! +1
(where ‘g’ stands for the greatest prime known at the moment), (i) was
deemed problematic because its denial fails to bound the search for a
counterexample to ‘a+1=1+a’. Hence, its denial is not a real proposition, and,
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so, the law of excluded middle cannot be applied to (i), making it problematic.
In like manner, (ii) classically implies ‘there is a prime number greater than g’.
This was not regarded as a real proposition since it gives no bound for the
search for the prime it asserts to exist, and, by the definition of g (as being the
largest prime known), any such bound would go beyond everything that is
known. Hence (ii), too, was regarded as leading to non-finitary conclusions
when manipulated according to the principles of classical logic and is
therefore problematic. We are not sure that Hilbert’s reasoning regarding this
last case is ultimately capable of sustaining his conclusion. This does not,
however, in our estimation, threaten the cogency of his distinction between
problematic and unproblematic reals.
45 To be more exact, what was to be prohibited was the use of ideal methods
that conflict with real methods in the sense that they generate real theorems
that are refutable by finitary means. We will refer to this as real-consistency.
This may signal a difference between Kant and Hilbert. For while Kant
wanted to proscribe all uses of reason that transcend what is determinable
by the senses, Hilbert, on the other hand, seems to have been primarily
interested in prohibiting uses of ideal reasoning that are refutable by
finitary reasoning. What he would have said about ideally proven real
theorems that are neither provable nor refutable by finitary means is less
clear.
It is also important to note in this connection that there is an asymmetry
between the observation sentences of an empirical science and Hilbert’s real
sentences. This asymmetry consists in the fact that observation sentences are,
by their very definition, to be decidable by observational evidence. Real
sentences, on the other hand, are not understood as being necessarily
decidable by finitary or real means. Thus, while it is possible to pass from a
requirement that no observational consequence of an empirical theory be
observationally refutable to a requirement that every observational
consequence be observationally verifiable, it is not similarly possible to pass
from a requirement that no ideally provable real theorem be refutable by real
means to a requirement that every real theorem provable by ideal means be
provable by real means. For more on this, see [2.29].
46 The salient feature of a formal system for the purposes of this discussion is
that its set of theorems is recursively enumerable.
47 PRA has as its theorems all logical consequences of the recursion equations
for (formalizations of) the primitive recursive functions. In addition, it admits
mathematical induction restricted to (formulae formalizing) primitive
recursive relations. Cf. [2.135] for an extended argument to the effect that PRA
is a formalization of finitary reasoning.
48 For a useful discussion of this ‘relativized’ form of Hilbert’s programme, see
the very nice expository paper [2.40].
49 WKL0 is the theory obtained by adding the so-called weak König’s lemma, (i.e.
the claim that every infinite subtree of the complete binary tree has an infinite
branch) to a system called RCA0, which contains the usual axioms for
addition, multiplication, 0, equality and inequality, induction for Σ1 formulae,
and comprehension for formulae (i.e. all instances of the schema
(n
φ(n)) where φ is any Σ1 formula such that there is a II1 formula ␺ to
which it is provably equivalent). It should also be mentioned that the proof of
(ii); which is due to Harvey Friedman, actually establishes something
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stronger than (ii); namely, that all II2 theorems (i.e. theorems equivalent to a
sentence of the form
, where
is a recursive formula) of WKL0
are provable in PRA. Finally, it should be noted that these same results are
obtainable for a stronger system
which contains some non-
constructive theorems of functional analysis not provable in WKL0. For more
on this, see [2.134]. Cf. [2.133] for a more thorough bibliography concerning
the work establishing (i) and (ii).
50 It is not just the ideal derivation of a real theorem τP which, by itself, is to be
simpler than any real proof of τR. For that ideal derivation of τR must be
supplemented with a metamathematical proof of I’s real-soundness if we are
to obtain a genuine justification for τR from an ideal derivation of it. For a
more thorough discussion of this and related matters, see [2.27], chs 2 (esp.
pp. 57–73). 3 and 5, and [2.29].
51 Cf. [2.29], 370, 376 for a bit more on this.
52 Stated intuitively, the axiom of reducibility says that for every prepositional
function f, there is a predicative prepositional function Pf such that f and Pf
have the same extension.
53 Ayer stated the predicament of the empiricist well:
Whereas a scientific generalization is readily admitted to be
fallible, the truths of mathematics and logic appear to everyone
to be necessary or certain. Accordingly the empiricist must deal
with the truths of logic and mathematics in one of the two
following ways: he must say either that they are not necessary
truths, in which case he must account for the universal
conviction that they are; or he must say that they have no
factual content, and then he must explain how a proposition
which is empty of all factual content can be true and useful and
surprising.
([2–2], 72–3)
54 The former kind of proposition was called analytic and the latter kind
synthetic.
55 In the case of Carnap (cf. [2.24]), this thesis of analyticity was developed by
introducing the notion of a linguistic framework, which he understood as a
system of rules for talking about entities of a given kind. Linguistic
frameworks induce a distinction between internal and external questions of
existence. Answers to internal questions, such as the question ‘Is there a
prime number greater than 100?’, come from logical analysis based on the
rules governing the expressions making up the framework. Answers to such
questions are therefore logically or analytically true. External questions
querying the general existence of the entities associated with a given
linguistic framework are to be interpreted as questions regarding acceptance
of the framework itself (Ibid., 250). Thus, the question ‘Do numbers exist?’, is
to be understood as ‘Should the linguistic framework of numerical discourse
be accepted?’. Answers to such questions are to be decided on what are
basically pragmatic grounds; that is to say, on the basis of the ‘efficiency’ of
the framework in question as an ‘instrument’, or, in other words, on the basis
of ‘the ratio of the results achieved to the amount and complexity of the efforts
required’ (Ibid., 257). This view has often been described as a form of
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conventionalism, though use of this term would seem to disguise its essentially
pragmatist flavour. It also tends to confuse the position of Carnap’s later
writings on the nature of mathematics with that of his earlier writings, which
truly was conventionalist in character. For more on this latter point see [2.116].
56 Sharing some of the general spirit of Bostock, but more concerned to defend (a
version of) logicism, are Hodes [2.81] and [2.82].
57 This kind of logicism is closely related to the ‘structuralist’ position discussed
below.
58 The views of Quine and Putnam are stated and discussed below. See also the
discussion of Benacerraf’s dilemma given there. Field seems mainly to be
motivated by a desire to find a physicalist solution to this dilemma.
59 For the beginnings of a defence of the Kantian view, see [2.28], [2.30].
60 Cf. Field [2.43], 516, n. 7, where he cites this as the key feature
distinguishing his modalization of mathematics from the earlier one of
Putnam [2.102].
61 Basically, the idea is that if one has need of a given capacity, and could also
benefit from its improvement, then one will be rationally impelled to bring
about such improvements.
62 Heyting referred ([2.70], 108) to this thesis as the ‘principle of positivity’, and
acknowledge that it is the chief determinant of the character of his logic.
63 ‘a logical theorem expresses the fact that, if we know a proof of certain
theorems, then we also know a proof for another theorem’ ([2.70], 107).
64 There is some question as to what exactly this means. Does it mean that one
who knows the meaning of a mathematical sentence S either knows or can
readily obtain either a proof or a disproof of S? Or does it mean, instead, that
one knows the meaning of S when and only when he or she would recognize a
proof or a disproof of S were he or she to be given it? See [2.93], [2.94] and
[2.140] for more on this topic.
65 This is not said as a criticism of Dummett. For he states explicitly that
his conception and defence of intuitionism is not intended to comport
with that of Brouwer or Heyting or any other particular intuitionist
([2.36], 215).
66 (ii’) is not altogether uncontroversial, however. For it equates legitimate
ascription of implicit knowledge to a speaker with implication by the best
total theory of his or her behaviour. In doing so, it fails adequately to reflect
the fact that that theory of a speaker’s behaviour which, judged by ‘local’
standards, qualifies as best might have to be sacrificed in order to obtain the
best global theory (i.e. the best total explanation of all phenomena—not just
those constituting the speaker’s behaviour). Changing (ii) in this direction
would, however, only intensify the objection to Dummett’s argument
developed here.
67 On occasion when I’ve presented this argument I’ve been met with the
charge that it presupposes a holistic view of meaning and that that is
something Dummett explicitly rejects. This latter claim is clearly true
([2.36], 218–21). It is, however, a misunderstanding of my argument to
think of it as presupposing a holistic view of meaning. Indeed, the
alternative I suggested above to Dummett’s view of implicit knowledge is
one that sees implicit knowledge (and hence knowledge of meaning) as
consisting in the occupation of a specific mental or psychological or neural
state that underlies the behaviour with which Dummett wants to equate it.
Our claim is that even such a non-holistic view of meaning as this is
subject to underdetermination by the observed facts of speaker behaviour.
The basis of our objection is therefore not acceptance of a holistic view of
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meaning, but rather acceptance of the general idea of underdetermination
of theory by data. Regardless of whether Dummett has produced
convincing reasons for rejecting holism (and we believe he has not), he has
provided no reasons for rejecting the idea of underdetermination of theory
by data.
68 Indeed, in his 1939 Cambridge lectures on the foundations of mathematics
([2.150], 237), Wittgenstein dismissed intuitionism as ‘bosh’.
69 For useful discussions of Wittgenstein’s views, the reader should consult
[2.35], [2.152], and [2.129]. The latter is especially recommended for the many
stimulating questions and challenges it raises for the more influential
interpretations of the later writings.
70 Putnam [2.106] strengthens this to say that in order even to formulate science,
mathematics is needed.
71 On the ‘web’ metaphor, this is what is meant by saying that they are ‘centrally
located’.
72 Nor is this merely lip service. For Putnam has argued that the best way of
clearing up certain paradoxes in quantum physics may be to revise classical
two-valued logic or classical probability theory [2.104].
73 His view was not, however, empiricist. This is so because he rejected the
idea that sensory intuition is the ultimate basis for (at least most of)
mathematical knowledge. He posited instead a distinctively mathematical
form of intuition, though this mathematical intuition was interpreted in a
realist or platonist manner, as a means of gaining acquaintance with
externally existing objects, and not in a Kantian manner, as an a priori form
or condition of thought.
74 Gödel notes in the same place, however, that, at present, so little is known
about the lower level mathematical and physical effects of such higher
level axioms as those concerning the existence of various kinds of so-
called ‘large cardinals’ that inductive justification of the kind just noted is
not possible.
75 My own inclination is to think that Benacerraf’s dilemma is not a genuine
dilemma. In particular, I am inclined to reject claim (i) of the argument
leading to the dilemma—that is, the claim that we are under some sort of
obligation to treat mathematical language as semantically continuous with
non-mathematical language. What does seem to be an obligation is that we
treat mathematical language as a congruous element of our larger
linguistic system, conceived of as a device for manipulating
representations of the world. In general, I take language to play the role in
human thought of allowing us to substitute manipulation of
representations of the world for manipulations of the world itself. But
schemes for substituting manipulations of representations of the world for
manipulations of the world itself (conceived in either realist or idealist
terms) can certainly be so fashioned as to make room for sub-devices
whose significance within the scheme is that of a calculary or
computational device rather than that of a referential device. Sometimes
syntactical manipulation of signs might be better than direct semantical
manipulation as a way of managing what, in the end, is to be a
representation-manipulation. That being so, syntactical manipulation
might well play an important role in a greater overall scheme of basically
semantical representation-manipulation. At the same time, however, it is
hardly to be supposed that such devices are to be treated as semantically
continuous with the more referential parts of the linguistic scheme. Nor is
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there any reason I can see for denying that the role of mathematical
language within our overall linguistic scheme is that of a calculary or
computational device. As a result, I see little grounds for accepting
Benacerraf’s (i) and the ensuing ‘dilemma’ that is built upon it.
76 For another statement to this general effect, see [2.131], 534.
77 See the remarks from Weyl quoted below for a relatively early statement of
just this idea.
78 For more on the ideas expressed here, the interested reader should consult the
correspondence with H. Weber in volume III of Dedekind’s Gesammelte
mathematische Werke. For worthwhile discussions of Dedekind’s views, see
[2.136], [2.137] and [2.98], section 2.
79 The general prevalence of such views around the turn of the century is also
noted in [2.148] and [2.10].
80 I would except Hilbert’s later philosophy of mathematics (and, in particular,
that expressed in [2.78]) from this generalization.
I would like to thank Aron Edidin, Richard Foley, Alasdair MacIntyre,
Alvin Plantinga, Phillip Quinn, Stuart Shanker and Stewart Shapiro for
reading and helpfully commenting on all or parts of this chapter. The
mistakes that remain are mine alone.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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2.2 Ayer, A. Language, Truth and Logic, London, Gollancz, 1936.
2.3 ——(ed.) Logical Positivism, New York, The Free Press, 1959.
2.4 Beeson, M. Foundations of Constructive Mathematics, Berlin, Springer-
Verlag, 1985.
2.5 Benacerraf, P. ‘What Numbers Could Not Be’, Philosophical Review 74
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New York, Macmillan and the Free Press, 1967.
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2.13 Bridges, D. Varieties of Constructive Mathematics, Cambridge,
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2.14 Brouwer, L.E.J. ‘Life, Art and Mysticism’, 1905, repr. in [2.20].
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Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1981.
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philosophie 4 (1950):20–40; repr. in [2.7].
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Vieweg, 1887; repr. in 1969. English trans. in [2.26].
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Publications, 1963.
2.27 Detlefsen, M. Hilbert’s Program, Dordrecht, Reidel, 1986.
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First Incompleteness Theorem’, Journal of Philosophical Logic 19
(1990):343–77.
2.30 ——‘Poincaré Against the Logicians’, Synthese 90 (1992): 349–78.
2.31 ——(ed.) Proof and Knowledge in Mathematics, London, Routledge, 1992.
2.32 ——(ed.) Proof, Logic and Formalization, London, Routledge, 1992.
2.33 ——‘Poincaré vs. Russell on the Role of Logic in Mathematics’,
Philosophia Mathematics Series III, 1 (1993):24–49.
2.34 ——‘Constructive Existence Claims’, to appear in Philosophy of
Mathematics Today, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 199?.
2.35 Dummett, M. ‘Wittgenstein’s Philosophy of Mathematics’,
Philosophical Review 68 (1959):324–48.
2.36 ——(1973) ‘The Philosophical Basis of Intuitionistic Logic’, in H. Rose
and J.Shepherdson (eds) Logic Colloquium ’73, Amsterdam, North-
Holland, 1973, repr. in [2.7].
2.37 ——Elements of Intuitionism, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1977.
2.38 Feferman, S. ‘Systems of Predicative Analysis’, Journal of Symbolic Logic
29 (1964):1–30.
2.39 ——‘Systems of Predicative Analysis, II’, Journal of Symbolic Logic 33
(1968):193–220.
2.40 ——‘Hilbert’s Program Relativized: Proof-theoretical and
Foundational Reductions’, Journal of Symbolic Logic 53 (1988):364–84.
2.41 Fichte, J. (1797) Werke, III (Wissenschaftslehre), Leipzig, Felix Meiner,
1797.
2.42 Field, H. Science Without Numbers, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University
Press, 1980.
2.43 ——‘Is Mathematical Knowledge Just Logical Knowledge?’
Philosophical Review 93 (1984):509–52, repr. in [2.45].
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PHILOSOPHY OF MATHEMATICS IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
2.44 ——‘On Conservativeness and Incompleteness’, Journal of Philosophy
82 (1985):239–59, repr. in [2.45].
2.45 ——Realism, Mathematics and Modality, Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1989.
2.46 Frege, G. Über eine geometrische Darstellung der imaginären Gebilde in der
Ebene , 1873, doctoral dissertation, Philosophical Faculty, University
of Göttingen. Page references to I.Angelelli (ed.) Kleine Schriften,
Hildesheim, 1967. Partial English trans. in [2.56].
2.47 ——Rechnungsmethoden, die sich auf eine Erweiterung des Größenbegriffes
gründen, 1874, Habilitationsschrift, Philosophical Faculty,
University of Jena. English trans. in [2.56].
2.48 ——Begriffsschrift, eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete Formelsprache des
reinend Denkens, Halle, 1879. English trans. in [2.144].
2.49 ——Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik, Breslau, Koebner, 1884 English
trans. [2.54].
2.50 ——Über formalen Theorien der Arithmetik, Sitzungsberichte der
Jenaischen Gesellschaft für Medizin und Naturwissenschaft, 19
(suppl. vol. 2) (1885):94–104. English trans. in [2.56].
2.51 ——‘Function und Begriff. Lecture presented to the Jenaischen
Gesellschaft für Medizin und Naturwisssenschaft. English trans. in
[2.56].
2.52 ——Die Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, vol. I, Jena, Pohle, 1893; repr.
Hildesheim, Olms, 1962.
2.53 ——‘Kritische Beleuchtung einiger Punkte in E.Schröder’s
Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik’, Archiv für systematische
Philosophie 1 (1895): 433–56. English trans. in [2.56].
2.54 ——The Foundations of Arithmetic, Evanston, IL, Northwestern
University Press, 1974; English trans. of [2.49].
2.55 ——Philosophical and Mathematical Correspondance, G.Gabriel et al. (eds),
H.Kaal, (trans.), Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1980.
2.56 ——Gottlob Frege: Collected Papers on Mathematics, Logic and Philosophy,
B.McGuinness (ed.), Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1984.
2.57 Friedman, M. ‘Kant’s Theory of Geometry’, Philosophical Review, 94
(1985): 455–506.
2.58 ——‘Kant on Concepts and Intuitions in The Mathematical Sciences’,
Synthese 84 (1990):213–57.
2.59 Gauss, K. Werke, Vols I-XI, Leipzig, Teubner, 1863–1903.
2.60 ——Briefwechsel mit H.W.M.Olbers, Hildesheim, Georg Olms, 1976.
2.61 Gentzen, G. ‘Die Widerspruchsfreiheit der reinen Zahlentheorie’,
Mathematische Annalen 112 (1936):493–565.
2.62 Gödel, K. ‘Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze der Principia
Mathematica und verwandter Systeme I’, Monatshefte für Mathematik
und Physik 38 (1931) :173–198. English trans. in [2.144].
2.63 ——‘What Is Cantor’s Continuum Problem?’ American Mathematical
Monthly 54 (1947):515–25.
2.64 ——‘Über eine bisher noch nicht benützte Erweiterung des finiten
Standpunktes’, Dialectica 12 (1958):280–7. English trans. in Journal of
Philosophical Logic 9 (1958):133–42.
2.65 ——‘What Is Cantor’s Continuum Problem?’, rev. version of [2.63]; rep.
in [2.7].
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PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE, LOGIC AND MATHEMATICS
2.66 Hahn, H. ‘Logik, Mathematik und Naturerkennen’, vol. 2 of the
Einheitswissenchaft series (Carnap and Hahn (eds)), Vienna, Gerold,
1933. English trans. in [2.3]
2.67 Halsted, B. The Foundations of Science, Lancaster, PA, The Science Press,
1946.
2.68 Hellman, G. Mathematics Without Numbers, Oxford, Oxford University
Press, 1989.
2.69 Heyting, A. Intuitionism: An Introduction, Amsterdam, North-Holland,
1956. Page references are to the 3rd rev. edn, 1971.
2.70 ——(1958) ‘Intuitionism in Mathematics’, in R.Klibansky (ed.)
Philosophy in the Mid-Century, Firenze, 1958.
2.71 Hilbert, D. Letter to Frege, 29 December, 1899. English trans. in [2.55].
2.72 ——‘Mathematische Probleme’, lecture presented to the International
Congress of Mathematicians in Paris. English trans. in Bulletin of the
American Mathematical Society 8 (1902):437–79.
2.73 ——‘Axiomatisches Denken’, 1918, in [2.79].
2.74 ——‘Neubegrilndung der Mathematik (Erste Mitteilung)’, 1922, in
[2.79].
2.75 ——‘Über das Unendliche’, Mathematische Annalen 95 (1925): 161–90.
2.76 ——‘On the Infinite’, 1925, English trans. of [2.75] in [2.144].
2.77 ——‘The Foundations of Mathematics’, 1927, in [2.144].
2.78 ——‘Naturerkennen und Logik’, 1930, in [2.79].
2.79 ——Gesammelte Abhandlungen, vol. 3, Berlin, Springer, 1935, repr., New
York, Chelsea, 1965.
2.80 Hilbert, D. and P.Bernays Grundlagen der Mathematik, vol. I, Berlin,
Spinger, 1934.
2.81 Hodes, H. ‘Logicism and the Ontological Commitments of Arithmetic’,
Journal of Philosophy 81:(1984) 123–49.
2.82 ——‘Where do the Natural Numbers Come From?’ Synthese 84:(1990)
347–407.
2.83 Hume, D. Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Oxford,
Clarendon Press, 1748.
2.84 Kant, I. On the Form and Principles of the Sensible and Intelligible World,
1770, in G.B.Kersferd and D.E.Walford (trans. and eds) Kant: Selected
Pre-Critical Writings and Correspondence with Beck, New York, Barnes
and Noble, 1968.
2.85 ——Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik die als Wissenschaft
auftreten können, Riga, 1783. English trans. in P.Carus (trans.), Kant’s
Prolegomena, Chicago, Open Court, 1929.
2.86 ——Kritik der reinen Vernunft, 2nd. edn, Riga, J.F.Hartknoch, 1787.
English trans. in [2.88].
2.87 ——Gesammelte Schriften, Berlin, Reimer, 1900.
2.88 ——Critique of Pure Reason, N.K.Smith (trans.), New York, St Martin’s
Press, 1965.
2.89 Kitcher, P. The Nature of Mathematical Knowledge, Oxford, Oxford
University Press, 1983.
2.90 Kreisel, G. ‘Hilbert’s Programme’, 1958, in [2.7].
2.91 Kronecker, L. ‘Über den Zahlbegriff’, Journal für reine und angewandte
Mathematik 101 (1887):261–74. Repr. in Werke, vol. 3, Part I, 1932, pp.
249–74
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PHILOSOPHY OF MATHEMATICS IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
2.92
2.93
2.94
2.95
2.96
2.97
2.98
2.99
2.100
2.101
2.102
2.103
2.104
2.105
2.106
2.107
2.108
2.109
2.110
2.111
2.112
2.113
2.114
2.115
2.116
2.117
Maddy, P. Realism in Mathematics, Oxford, Oxford University Press,
1990.
McGinn, C. ‘Truth and Use’, in M.Platts (ed.) Reference, Truth and
Reality, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980.
——‘Reply to Tennant’, Analysis 41 (1981):120–3.
Parsons, C. ‘Mathematical Intuition’, Proceedings of the Aristotelian
Society 80 (1980):145–68.
——‘Quine on the Philosophy of Mathematics’, repr. in [2.97].
——Mathematics in Philosophy, Ithaca, Cornell University Press,
1983.
——‘The Structuralist View of Mathematical Objects’, Synthese 84
(1990): 303–46.
Poincaré, H. La science et l’hypothese, Paris, Ernest Flammarion, 1903.
English trans. in [2.67].
——La valeur de la science, Paris, Ernest Flammarion, 1905. English
trans. in [2.67].
——Science et méthode, Paris, Ernest Flammarion, 1908. English trans.
in [2.67].
Putnam, H. ‘Mathematics without Foundations’, Journal of Philosophy
64 (1967):5–22, repr. in [2.107] and [2.7].
——‘The Thesis that Mathematics is Logic’, in R. Schoenman (ed.)
Bertrand Russell: Philosopher of the Century, London, Allen and
Unwin, 1967, repr. in [2.107].
——‘The Logic of Quantum Mechanics’, in R.Cohen and M.Wartofsky
(eds) Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol. 5, Dordrecht,
Reidel, 1968, repr. in [2.107].
——Philosophy of Logic, New York, Harper and Row, 1971.
——‘What Is Mathematical Truth?’ 1975, in [2.107].
——Mathematics, Matter and Method, Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1979.
Quine, W.V.D. ‘On What There Is’, Review of Metaphysics 2 (1948):21–38,
Repr. in [2.110].
——‘Two Dogmas of Empiricism’, Philosophical Review 60 (1951):20–46,
repr. in [2.110]
——From a Logical Point of View, New York, Harper and Row, 1953.
——‘Carnap and Logical Truth’, Synthese 12 (1954):350–79. Repr. in
[2.7].
Resnik, M. Frege and the Philosophy of Mathematics, Ithaca, NY, Cornell
University Press, 1980.
——‘Mathematics as a Science of Patterns: Ontology and Reference’,
Nous 15 (1981):529–50
——‘Mathematics as a Science of Patterns: Epistemology’, Nous 16
(1982): 95–105.
——Review of H. Field’s Science Without Numbers, Nous 27 (1982):514–
19.
Runggaldier, E. Carnap’s Early Conventionalism: An Inquiry into the
Historical Background of the Vienna Circle, Amsterdam, Rodopi,
1984.
Russell, B. ‘Recent Work on the Principles of Mathematics’,
International Monthly 4 (1901):83–101.
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PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE, LOGIC AND MATHEMATICS
2.118 ——‘Is Position in Time and Space Absolute or Relative?’ Mind 10
(1901b): 293–317.
2.119 ——Letter to Frege, 1902, in [2.144].
2.120 ——The Principles of Mathematics, Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press, 1903. Page references to the 7th impression of the 2nd ed,
London, George Allen and Unwin, 1937.
2.121 ——‘Review of Science and Hypothesis by H.Poincare’, Mind 14 (1905):
412–18.
2.122 ——‘Les paradoxes de la logique’, Revue de métaphysique et de morale 14
(1906):, 627–50. English trans. under the title ‘On “Insolubilia” and
their Solution by Symbolic Logic’ published in [2.125].
2.123 ——‘The Regressive Method of Discovering the Premisses of
Mathematics’, read before the Cambridge Mathematical Club, 9
March, 1907. First published in [2.125]
2.124 ——Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy, London, George Allen and
Unwin, 1919.
2.125 ——Essays in Analysis, D.Lackey (ed.) London, Allen and Unwin, 1973.
2.126 Russell, B. and Whitehead, A.N. Principia Mathematica, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1910.
2.127 Schelling, F. System des transcendentalen Idealismus, Hamburg, Felix
Meiner, 1800.
2.128 Schütte, K. Beweistheorie, Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1960.
2.129 Shanker, S. Wittgenstein and the Turning-Point in the Philosophy of
Mathematics, Albany, NY, State University of New York Press, 1987.
2.130 Shapiro, S. ‘Conservativeness and Incompleteness’, Journal of
Philosophy 80 (1983):521–131.
2.131 ——‘Mathematics and Reality’, Philosophy of Science 50 (1983b):523–48.
2.132 Sieg, W. ‘Fragments of Arithmetic’, Annals of Pure and Applied Logic 28
(1985):33–72.
2.133 Simpson, S. ‘Subsystems of Z2 and Reverse Mathematics’, 1987, in
[2.139]
2.134 ——‘Partial Realizations of Hilbert’s Program’, Journal of Symbolic
Logic 53 (1988):349–63.
2.135 Tait, W. ‘Finitism’, Journal of Philosophy 78:(1981):524–46.
2.136 ——‘Truth and Proof: The Platonism of Mathematics’, Synthese 69
(1986): 341–70.
2.137 ——‘Critical Notice: Charles Parsons’ Mathematics in Philosophy’,
Philosophy of Science 53 (1986) 588–606.
2.138 Takeuti, G. Proof Theory, Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1975.
2.139 ——Proof Theory, 2nd. edn, Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1987.
2.140 Tennant, N. ‘Is This a Proof I See Before Me?’, Analysis 41
(1981):115–19.
2.141 ——‘Were Those Disproofs I Saw Before Me?’, Analysis 44 (1984):97–
195.
2.142 Tragesser, R. ‘Three Insufficiently Attended to Aspects of most
Mathematical Proofs: Phenomenological Studies’, 1992, in [2.32].
2.143 Troelstra, A. and van Dalen, D. Constructivism in Mathematics, 2 vols,
Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1988.
2.144 van Heijenoort, J. From Frege to Gödel: A Sourcebook in Mathematical Logic
1879–1931, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1967.
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PHILOSOPHY OF MATHEMATICS IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
2.145
2.146
2.147
2.148
2.149
2.150
2.151
2.152
Wagner, S. ‘Logicism’ 1992, in [2.31].
Webb, J. Mechanism, Mentalism, and Metamathematics, Dordrecht,
Reidel, 1980.
Weyl, H. ‘David Hilbert and his Mathematical Work’, Bulletin of the
American Mathematical Society 50 (1944):612–54.
——Philosophy of Mathematics and Natural Science, Princeton, Princeton
University Press, 1949 rev. and augmented English edn, New York,
Atheneum Press, 1963.
Wittgenstein, L. Philosophical Investigations, New York, Macmillan,
1953.
——Wittgenstein’s Lectures on the Foundations of Mathematics: Cambridge
1939, C.Diamond (ed.), Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1976.
——Remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics, G.H.von Wright et al.
(eds), Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1978.
Wright, C. Wittgenstein on the Foundations of Mathematics, Cambridge,
MA, Harvard University Press, 1980.
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CHAPTER 3
Frege
Rainer Born
LIFE IN INTELLECTUAL CONTEXT
Gottlob Friedrich Ludwig Frege was born on 8 November 1848 at Wismar
Mecklenburg, Germany and died on 26 July 1925 at Bad Kleinen (south of
Wismar). He was initially a mathematician and logician and finally
became a very important philosopher in the field of analytical philosophy
(depending of course on one’s understanding or conception of
philosophy).
Today it is usually undisputed that Frege was the real founder of
modern (mathematical) logic, i.e. he is considered to be the most
important logician since Aristotle. In his philosophy of mathematics
(more precisely his philosophy of arithmetic), the so-called ‘logizism’, in
which he attempted to reduce arithmetic to logic alone, depending on
one’s understanding of logic), Frege was concerned with the foundations
of mathematics and provided the first contribution towards a modern
philosophical discussion of mathematics.
Furthermore, Frege is considered to be the founder of philosophical
logic and analysed language from a philosophical-semantic point of
view (philosophy of language). In this respect he can be considered to be
the grandfather of a modern, linguistically orientated analytical
philosophy.1
Frege studied mathematics, physics and philosophy at Jena and
Göttingen. Among his teachers was Hermann Lotze, who by some (e.g.
Hans Sluga) is considered to have influenced the development of Frege’s
‘functional’ conception of logic.2 He wrote his doctoral thesis in 1873 at
Göttingen about a geometrical representation of the imaginary entities in
the plane (Über eine geometrische Darstellung der imaginären, Gebilde in der
Ebene)3 and was appointed University Lecturer in mathematics in 1874 at
Jena with a second dissertation about ‘Methods of calculation founded
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FREGE
upon an extension of the concept of magnitude’, (Rechnungsmethoden, die
sich auf eine Erweiterung des Größenbegriffes gründen).4 He was professor at
Jena from 1879 to 1918 and in 1879 he was made extraordinary (and in
1896 ordinary) honorary professor.
During his lifetime Frege received little scientific acknowledgement
and he died an embittered man.
Russell, Wittgenstein and Carnap, tried to promote Frege’s ideas, but
entitled the chapter Gottlob Frege in Philip E.B.Jourdain’s ‘The
Development of The Theories of Mathematical logic and the Principles of
Mathematics’, which drew attention to Frege’s work. It was not until the
publication of the ‘Philosophy of Arithmetic’ (Grundgesetze der Arithmetik),
which Frege himself read and supplemented with commentaries, that his
reputation was established. Frege considered it to be his life’s work to
produce incontestable foundations for elementary number theory and
analysis.
Frege’s published work can be divided into three important periods:
Early period:
Begriffsschrift (BS)
Grundlagen der Arithmetik
(GLA)
(1879–1891) Reference number
(1879)
[3.3]
(1884)
[3.6]
Mature period:
Grundgesetze der Arithmetik I
(GGAI)
Grundgesetze der Arithmetik
II (GGAII)
Funktion und Begriff (FB)
Sinn und Bedeutung (SB)
Über Begriff und Gegenstand
(BG)
Was ist eine Funktion (WF)
Late period:
Der Gedanke (LUI)
Die Verneinung (LUII)
Das Gedankengefüge (LUIII)
(1891–1904)
(1893)
[3.11]
(1903)
[3.14]
(1891)
(1892)
(1892)
[3.8]
[3.9]
[3.10]
(1904)
[3.15]
(1906–1925)
(1918)
(1918)
(1923)
[3.16]
[3.17]
[3.18]
Further important insights can be gained by studying the Nachlaß (NL)
[3.19] and the Briefwechsel (BW) [3.19]. These abbreviations are used
internationally.
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PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE, LOGIC AND MATHEMATICS
FREGE AND MODERN LOGIC
Summing up Frege’s contribution to logic retrospectively speaking, i.e.
from a modern point of view and with the knowledge of modern
developments, one could say that Frege in his BS [3.3] for the first time
produced a logical system with formalized language, axioms and rules
for inference. The later logical system of the GGAI [3.11]6 is concerned
with what today we call the second-order predicate calculus
(quantification over objects and properties). The fragments of sentence
and predicate logic of first order contained in the BS build—as we know
today—a complete formalization of deductive logical theories. Frege’s
achievement in logics is comparable to Aristotle’s with respect to
‘syllogistics’. From the point of view of philosophy of science one can
interpret the BS as a sort of preparation for the logical foundation of
arithmetic, as the development of the instruments to achieve this aim.
In this section, I shall give a short survey of Frege’s achievements in
formal logic from a modern point of view.7 Then, I shall deal with some
philosophical considerations, which are especially important for our
investigations. Finally, I shall briefly touch upon predicate logic and the
transition from Frege’s BS to his GGA. In doing so, I would like
nevertheless to emphasize that one first has to make oneself familiar
with a given field of knowledge,8 so that one has a fund of examples at
one’s disposal and, while analysing and thinking about it, is able to gain
new insights.9 This is in accordance with posthumus interpretations of
Frege’s procedures, with what might be called his constructivist
approach,10 and which one should distinguish from Husserl’s
abstractivistic approach.
Frege’s essential contribution to modern logic consists in the
introduction of (logical) quantifiers, which helped to solve problems that
hitherto had turned up in the logical analysis of general sentences, i.e.
sentences containing expressions like ‘for all’, ‘some’, ‘there exists one’
(and perhaps only one), ‘there exists at least one’, etc.11 The
unsatisfactory attempts to analyse these sentences in a formal logical
way had prevented substantial progress in logics since Aristotle.12
One can argue that from a logical point of view Frege analysed these
sentences in such a way that they could be considered as names for
truth-values. This means that he considers just judgeable expressions, i.e.
sentences which possess a ‘judgeable content’, an idea that later, in
connection with problems concerning the identity-relation between
statements, led to the invention of the term ‘sense’ (Sinn) as distinct from
‘reference’ (Bedeutung).
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FREGE
One can interpret this in the following way: when Frege uses ‘-’ in
front of some A (he calls ‘-’ the content stroke) this means (to Frege,
reconstructively speaking) that in analysing A one is abstracting from
everything except from the fact that the expression A must be judgeable
and that one can positively assert it, i.e. turn it into a statement, whereby
the sentence (in the logical sense) thus ‘created’, i.e. being considered as
a sentence,13 can be true or false. In this case Frege uses what he calls
judgment-stroke ‘|’and writes ‘ٛA’ (asserting that A).
The way in which A is related to its content-A is then (explanatorily
speaking) simulated by relating it to (letting it refer to) ٛA, to a truth
value. Thus ‘ٛA’ (in modern language) can (very cautiously and for
reasons of reconstruction) also be considered as an expression for a truth
value variable. The ‘truth values’ themselves can be interpreted/
considered as belonging to the ‘realm of the objective’ (in Frege’s sense).
From an external, theoretico-explanatorical point of view, we are here
concerned with simulations, and the truth values are so-called
‘constructs’. From an internal, so-to-speak philosophical point of view,
we have to consider that the idea of sentences as ‘names for truth values’
can be useful or not, i.e. as an explanatory concept which can be
projected onto our understanding of what it is to be a sentence.
Kutschera, however, insists that Frege’s logical operations are not
defined for truth values or judgeable contents but for sentences, and
sentences are not analysed as names but are names for truth-values
([3.46], 24).
Perhaps one should empasize that in the context of logic the
expression ‘sentence’ has a primarily technical meaning, i.e. grammatical
sentences are replaced (thought of) in such a way that their relation to
real objects (our intimate experience of where it makes sense to talk of
real objects) is simulated by the relation of sentence signs (names) to
truth values, i.e. a sentence can be a name for a truth value. So the point
is that sentences are analysed as functions.
The greatest difficulty in presenting Frege’s ‘logic’—especially if one
analyses the original papers—is that one cannot simply immerse oneself
in the background knowledge of Frege’s time. We cannot really ignore
our so-called modern knowledge, it will always influence our
interpretation, as Kutschera illustrates in [3.46].
In the following considerations, I shall therefore resort to an approach
that does not rest purely on linguistic means.
Frege in BS starts by introducing the distinction between variables
and constants, then introduces an expression for judgements and goes
on to introduce ‘functions’ as a new means for analysing linguistic
expressions (a means distinct from the classical subject—predicate
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PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE, LOGIC AND MATHEMATICS
analysis). He is thus able to circumvent the classical approach to logic,
which starts with concepts, goes on to judgements, and ends with
inferences.
Frege explicitly starts with judgements and later, after extending the
mathematical concept of functions, shows that concepts can be analysed
as special functions. In regarding a linguistic expression as a function, he
considers the expression as the result of the application of a function, i.e.
as the value of a function (in the modern sense).
In BS Frege talks only of signs and sign sequences which announce the
content of a judgement, i.e., if A is such a sign in our language (a
meaningful linguistic expression that refers to some fact in the world),
then ‘-A’14 is an expression for the idea to consider the sign A under the
aspect that A expresses some content. Frege himself circumscribes this in
normal language as ‘the sentence that’ or ‘the fact that’. Later in GGA
Frege very precisely distinguishes between a sign and what it designates
and develops a logic of terms. In BS a judgement seems to be a statement
that claims to be true or false.
But not every ‘content’ ‘–A’ can be turned into a judgement (using the
judgement stroke ‘|’ as a means of expression, ‘ٛA’), i.e. turned into a
claim about a fact that obtains/contains (or not) a true or false statement.
According to Frege, one has therefore to distinguish between ‘contents’
that can be turned into judgements and contents for which this is not the
case. The following remark by Frege in the BS is important:
‘The horizontal stroke “–” in the sign “ٛ” combines the signs or sign
sequences following upon it into a whole (my emphasis). And the
affirmation which is expressed by the vertical stroke at the left of the
horizontal line concerns the sign sequence considered as a whole’ [3.3],
2.15 ‘What follows upon the content stroke therefore must always be a
“judgable content”’ (Ibid.).16 Thus, ‘ٛA’ expresses the fact that the content
‘–A’ is claimed or can be claimed.
In Frege’s calculus one more or less stays within the given language.
One considers linguistic expressions under a certain aspect of analysis but
has to enrich the ontology, i.e. to locally refine the expressive power of the
means of expression, the language. In other words, we are talking within a
language about that language.
One can understand this procedure as a sort of simulation, i.e. as the
picture that, just as a language is referring to the/some world, the claim
‘ٛA’ refers to some content ‘ –A’ as existing within the world our natural
language refers to from the beginning. This means that the special matters
in a natural language are simulated by some mapping or assignment ‘ٛA
|→ –A’ within the given language.
It is interesting to see how Frege introduces what today are known as
logical operators. Frege uses only two: negation and what today is called
material implication, and uses a two-dimensional notation in analogy to
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arithmetics, as he explains in ‘Berechtigung, 54’ ([3.4]). The logical
operators are defined for sentences or for linguistic expressions.17 To my
mind, however, and for matters of analysis, one should distinguish
between a ‘sentence’ in the logical reconstruction/analysis and a sentence
as element of a natural language.
Today, even in working with natural languages we regard the
concatenation of sentences to form new sentences (with the help of some
copula like and, or etc.) as produced by operators ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘if, then’,
which from a logical point of view are considered as two-place operators
that combine two given (logical) sentences into a new one, such that,
considered as a whole, this new sentence possesses a definite truth value.
It is clear that the theoretico-explanatory logical analysis is somehow
(mis-)projected as descriptive of (or operative within) the inner process of
a natural language. Language does not work in that way, but it can be
analysed in that way, though not in a global manner and only under
restrictive assumptions.
Summing up that part of BS which makes up sentential logic one can
transcribe Frege’s result in the following way:18
Axioms:
(A1) A→(B →A)
(A2) (C→(B→A))→((C→B)→(C–A))
(A3) (D→(B→A))→(B→(D→A))
(A4) (B→A)→(¬A→¬B)
(A5) ¬¬A→A
(A6) A→¬¬A
Derivation rule:
R 1: A→B, AٛB
Frege was important in developing predicate logic. In BS he introduces a
general concept of functions where his mathematical experience may
have been essential. He had the idea that it is possible to express the
utmost generality with respect to the truth of statements/propositions by
using the analytical and expressive power of functions (as generalization
of the mathematical use the latter). Thus, the introduction of functions
amounts to introducing a new means and aspect of analysing linguistic
expressions, in so far as the latter refer to or are concerned with the world,
i.e. refer to a judgeable content. This method of analysis ought to be
considered (with some qualms, of course, cf. G.Patzig vs. J.Lukasiewicz
with respect to interpreting Aristotelian logic19) as a generalization of the
subject-predicate analysis as exemplified by Aristotelian syllogistics.
Logic should—with respect to mathematics—be able to solve problems
which hitherto could not be solved. Thus, a sentence such as ‘there are
infinitely many prime numbers’ cannot even be analysed in Boolean logic.
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Anyway, the merit of Frege’s approach was to be able to exhibit
Aristotelian logic as a sort of borderline case (e.g. [3.3], 22–4, where
syllogistics is reconstructed).
Usually the sentence ‘all men are mortal’ is analysed (with respect to
subject and object) as ‘(Bx→Ax)’. The functional analysis is (Bx→Ax)
meaning that ‘for all x, if x is human then x is mortal’. But according to
Patzig ([3.50], 47) there is more to it, since in the Aristotelian case the
subject of a sentence is not the universal class of individuals but the class
of individuals of which B holds, i.e. the class B. A is the predicate. In
Aristotle the ‘universe of discourse’ is restricted to objects of which B
holds.
The Transition from the Logic of Concepts and Functional
Expressions (BS) to a Logic of Value Ranges (GGA)
In GGA ([3.11], [3.14]), Frege’s main oeuvre, which is explicitly concerned
with his so-called logicist programme of ‘reducing’ arithmetic to logic
(given his conception of logic), Frege once more formulates his logic (cf.
sections 1–48). The main differences with respect to BS concern:
1 The introduction of so-called value ranges for functions (see below).20
2 Sentences are consistently considered as names for truth (values), i.e.
a logic of terms is developed.
3 Syntax and semantics are defined much more precisely.
Preparatory works for GGA ([3.11]) are Funktion und Begriff ([3.8]) in
which Frege introduces value ranges, Über Sinn und Bedeutung ([3–9]), and
Über Begriff und Gegenstand ([3.10]), which are all generally regarded as
already belonging to Frege’s linguistic philosophy.
In [3.8] Frege minutely dissects the concept of function (and its
generalization) and for the first time introduces value ranges of functions
(actually as undefined basic concepts). He also formulates a first version
of what later became the notorious Axiom 5 in his GGA, opening up the
possibility for the derivation of Russell’s paradox. In the introduction to
the GGA Frege discusses exactly that axiom and its possibilities as
problematic.
To pick out just a few aspects which are interesting for shedding
additional light on Frege’s conception of logic in the later stages of his life,
consider the following: Amongst other things, Frege shows how one can
get from expressions for functions (remember they are values of the
application of a rule of ascription/assignment) to the ‘actual essence of a
function’. Taking expressions like ‘2.13+1’, ‘2.23+2’, ‘2.43 + 4’, one can see
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what those expressions have in common, namely, what in the
‘unsaturated’ (see below) expression ‘2·x3+x’ is present besides the ‘x’ and
what could be written in the following way: ‘2·( )3 + ( )’.21 Into the empty
slots one can insert names of numbers, such that again, a name of a
number is the result. Thus a function by itself can only be alluded to but
cannot be (literally) denominated.
The expression
, and thus any function η (which today would
be called dummy variables), is therefore incomplete or, as Frege calls it,
‘unsaturated’, which means it is in need of supplementation.
And it is this property that principally distinguishes functions from
objects, or from what, in a model, can play the role of an object. So, if one
wants to be clear about what is meant when we talk about an object, one
could say that an object is something that can be put into an empty slot in
a function, is able to play the role of an argument in a function, is
something to which a name can refer.
Only in applying a function to an object does a function yield
something independent in itself, namely the value of the function, which
again is something that can play the röle of an object or, in Frege’s diction,
is an object, though this ‘is’ need not be interpreted in a Platonistic,
realistic way but can also be understood as being simply explanatory with
no ontological commitment.22
Nevertheless it makes sense to say that for Frege the distiction
between function and object plays the röle of a basic ontological
distinction.
Concepts especially (remember that Frege’s starting point are
judgements) are considered as special functions, whereas propositions
(thoughts) are considered as objects. Thus, the unsaturatedness of
functions means that functions are not objects. Any value of a function,
however, is an object.
With respect to the plainly mathematical concept of functions it is
essential to note that not only numbers are admitted as arguments and
values. In Frege’s ‘technical’ language ‘truth values’ especially are
admissible as arguments and values, which means that concepts
(technically speaking) can be characterized as specific functions, i.e. as
functions whose value is always a truth value [3.8], 15.
Frege therefore insists that we should see how close what in logic is
called concept is connected with what he (and we today) call functions.
Especially the idea of the extension of a concept, i.e. the characterization
of something as ‘falling under a concept’, can be grasped by the idea of a
function (or be realized/actualized in a different way) in a more general
way, i.e. as being the value of a function where the concept of ‘value
range’ proves decisive.
We say, for example, that the value of the function 2x3+x for the
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argument 1 is 3. As we can see in Figure 3.1 below, we can identify the
value range for two functions, which also allows us to talk about
equivalence of function (i.e. if they produce the same value ranges).
Figure 3.1
REFLECTIONS ON FREGE’S PHILOSOPHY
OF ARITHMETIC
With the previous chapters at the back of our mind, we can now
concentrate on the definition of numbers. I shall be very explicit in order
to convey what it means to give a logical definition and once more shall
shed some light upon Frege’s concept of logic in general23. It is essential
here to get a feeling for the formal tools in use, especially the epistemic
resolution level provided by them, which I think is distinct from the
epistemic resolution level of ordinary language. As background, I shall
use primarily GLA and GGA and discuss the important distinction
between sense and reference, into which Frege’s beurteilbarer Inhalt24
decomposed in the GGA and which is essential for his philosophy of
language. I shall also briefly touch upon the so-called Axiom 5 (from the
Grundgesetze, the principle of abstraction, cf. Grundgesetze, pp. 36, 69, 240
and 253 ff.), which led to Russell’s paradox with respect to consequences
for Frege’s programme.
First, I shall try to develop a technical, theoretico-explanatory
understanding of Frege’s definition of a number, which is deliberately not
to be understood in historical terms but rather as an explanatory
reconstruction. The picture thus developed should assist in an
understanding of how to understand the philosophical significance of
Frege’s definition.
Frege’s starting point in his context of conveyance, i.e. the
presupposition he uses to get off the ground in a discussion, is that the
realms of application for the concept of number are usually one-place
concepts (i.e. predicates), which means that he already presupposes his
analysis/ understanding of concepts as functions. In short: since one-
place concepts can be empty as well, the number zero [0] can be defined as
a statement (actually a number statement) concerning an empty concept,
i.e. a concept under which no objects fall or belong.
Furthermore, since a concept to which there belongs one and only one
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object is definitely distinct from that object, one can consider the number
one [1] as the property of a concept, and thus primarily not as the property
of an object. And if one knows what it means to ascribe the number n to a
concept, one also knows what it means to ascribe the number n+1 to a
concept.
Now all this is not as simple as it sounds. An essential
presupposition for an understanding of the approach is to have a
‘logical picture’ of what it means to talk about the immediate
succession in a series/sequence of objects (cf. [3.3] Einiges aus der
allgemeinen Reihenlehre). This logical analysis can be used to make clear
in a most general way what the succession of one number to the next
one in the sequence of natural numbers amounts to (cf. [3.6], 67,
section 55). One can then very clearly express what it means to talk
about the ascription of the number n+1 to a concept F. From a purely
logical point of view it means that if there is at least one object a
belonging to F, such that one can build the following concept G,
defined as ‘belongs (also) to F but is distinct from a’, then the number n
is ascribed to G; in symbols, the cardinality of G is n (card (G)=n).
This construction can be applied to any a, even those not belonging
to F.25 Therefore one can define G more precisely as G[a; F] and then the
following holds: for any a from the extension ext(F)=[F] of F it is the
case that card (G[a; F])=n. This means that by using purely logical
means, i.e. in the most general way, one has expressed what it means
that the number n+1 is ascribed to a concept F. And this logical
understanding is independent with respect to its claim of validity of
any Anschauung in the Kantian sense and therefore, as Frege claims,
not synthetic a priori but, as he still claims in Logik in der Mathematik,
analytically a priori.
Let us now informally come back to the case of the number zero:
one can choose an inconsistent concept (e.g. αx (x x), the concept of
all x distinct from themselves) and recognize that it does not make
sense to consider any object as belonging to that concept—which
means that we cannot conceive of the existence of such an object.
Now we may consider the ‘class of all concepts F which have the
same extension as ’ (I shall write ). We assume that there exists a
one-to-one mapping between the elements of the extensions and
[F] of the concepts and F, respectively. This mapping defines an
equivalence relation between concepts and the class is an
equivalence class of second order and as such an expression of the
extension of the concept ‘equinumerous to L’. It is only by a detour
via this class [L] in its entirety that one ascribes the numeral 0 as a
number to the concept . In n: card:
such that card = ο.
This kind of reconstruction factually corresponds very closely to
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Frege’s ideas, since his concern is to define the number which should
belong to a concept as the extension of the concept ‘equi-numerous to the
concept F’ (cf. [3.6], 79/80).
It definitely does not mean, however, that one needs to count the
elements of or needs to know in its entirety or to understand, in a
plainly logical manner, what is intended by a number. The logical
‘intuition’ behind all this seems simply to be that one can say someone has
grasped what is meant by some number card. (F) ascribed to a concrete
concept F, if they have grasped the latter for all concepts with the same
extension as F, which means that that kind of grasping is independent of
the choice of a special representative as element of .
Now all this talk of ‘grasping a concept’ (e.g. the concept of a number)
is not intended as empirical psychological talk. It rather aims at showing
that it is not necessary to be concerned with philosophical introspection
(or, for that matter, a private language) in order to grasp what in general is
meant by a number. What is claimed is that this kind of grasping is
independent of the special choice of an empirical visualization/intuition
(in Kant’s sense of Vorstellung), or of an empirical ability to understand
mathematics.
Let us return to zero and consider the transition from 0 to 1. If one
wants to understand Frege’s approach, one has to try to recognize
something as succeeding immediately upon zero; something which will
be able to play the röle of 1. Frege uses a one-place concept (a predicate)
‘ψ(x)’ defined as ψ := ‘equal to 0’. But since ‘equal to 0(0)’ holds true of 0,
we can see that 0 belongs to ψ.26
Consider the concept ‘equal to ο’. This does only mean that some object
1 immediately succeeds upon ο. One can then determine that 1 is the
number which belongs to the concept ‘equal to 0’.
Counting thus is reduced qua logical understanding of what is going on
to a simple procedure of ascription f, contrary to an introspective
understanding of how one personally perceives oneself in the process of
counting—how one actualizes counting—or how one tries to teach
children to count properly.
Presupposing Frege’s functional interpretation or rather
reconstruction of the idea of a concept, a number is attached to a concept
in the sense that the objects which need to be counted fall under (belong
to) that concept. (The objects are put together under a concept. The
number attached to the concept is itself an object in two ways: first, as a
sign to which we are accustomed, i.e. as something we have learnt to
manipulate; second, as an abstract object such that any kind of
realization/actualization will help us to use the abstract concept (of
number) correctly.)
What seems important is the logical step of abstraction that is
explicated by Frege’s analysis. Already in his habilitation/second
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dissertation ([3.2], 1) he is concerned with a similar problem concerning
measurements of length. Length should no more be considered as some
kind of ‘matter’ filling up a line between its starting point and its end
point. This means that what is important (in modern terms) is solely the
beginning and end point and the attachment of a value, as was later
clearly elaborated by Hausdorff, Frêchet and others27, when they were
defining distance ‘functions’ d(a,b), if a and b designate points.
One clearly sees how Frege is against ‘introspection’ as an intuitive
(visualizable, anschaulich in Kant’s way of talking) source of logical
knowledge and how he, despite remaining extensional in his logical
outlook, is able to grasp what goes on in mathematical thought,
considered as an abstractum.
Frege therefore insists, for example, that the number 1 assigned to the
concept ‘moon of the earth’ does not express any content about the moon,
but only means that there is just one object falling under the concept, no
statement about the moon as such.
The role of abstraction in the process of counting becomes clear in
the following way: corresponding to a concept (but not identical with
it, it should be considered rather as a replacement or expression of a
concept) there is the extension of a concept, a sort of class of well-
defined objects (at least considered in that way) belonging to that
object. Counting amounts to identifying a concept F such that the
objects to be counted fall under this concept (considered as a function!)
and then to ascribe a number to that concept; a function f(x) is
actualized as card (F).
The intuition explicated by Frege consists of the idea that what
counting amounts to is the fact that one subsumes the objects to be counted
under a concept (remember this talk is to be understood interpretatively
or explanatorily and is not literally descriptive) and then one can say that
to the so identified concept there belongs that number which we in our
practice regard as the result of a process of counting, or have learnt to
generate as such.
Now if one thinks that this is really essential for a theoretical
understanding of the idea of number, then it is good for a start to be clear
about what it means that no number belongs to a concept or further, that
there is exactly one object falling under a concept. This is exactly what we
said before, namely that one formulates a logical analysis about what it
means, e.g., that no object belongs to F—but need the extension of the
concept be given literally?
According to Frege, numbers are (simply) objects and not concepts, i.e.
they should be regarded as arguments in a function and one should be
able (logically speaking) to quantify over them.
In order to be able to define numbers as objects in a logical sense, Frege
invents what today is called definition by abstraction. In [3.6], 74 ff. he
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illustrates his idea by the transition from the concept of two parallel lines
to the concept of the direction of lines in the Euclidian plane.
In principle, such a definition by abstraction (generation of equivalence
classes) works in the following way:28 one starts with a basic domain B of
some kind of entities one is intimate with and of which one has practical
experiences. It should be possible that one is able to experience there the
fact of a real partition of that domain, i.e. of subclasses/aggregates of
objects consisting of elements of the original domain, which under a
certain aspect of consideration, i.e. modulo this aspect (which means by
disregarding other distinguishing features), are considered as equal, i.e.
identical with respect to some value of a function, or indistinguishable for
a certain aim, demand, application or whatever one wants to do with
these entities.
Consider again the set of parallel lines (replaced by ‘lines of the same
direction’ in GLA) in the Euclidean plane (here the basic area B) or
perhaps a set of small wooden blocks for children, which can be distinct
in size, thickness, colour, roundness, etc., such that only length is the
essential aspect to choose in order to regard them as equal or not (cf.
Frege’s Habilitation).29 If one wants to generate an object with the length
of, say, 7 units and considers two groups of objects of length 3 and 4,
respectively as characteristic length, then it is inessential which special
representatives of the corresponding groups one chooses and places
together such that the length of the concatenation will be 7 units.
The point in question, which leads to definition by abstraction with
the help of equivalence classes, is exactly the explication of just that
procedure, i.e. the steps of abstraction involved, a procedure that does
not rest upon introspection or upon an intuition built upon inner
perception.
Abstractly speaking, this means that one assumes the existence of an
equivalence relation ‘R’ between the elements of B (in our case, identity or
indistinguishability with repect to some evaluation) in that domain.30
One can define such equivalence classes [x] as the sets of all those
elements y which are in relation R to some chosen x, i.e. by setting [x] := {y/
x R y}. [or written as {y/x~y}].
In this way one can attach to each element x from B a (new abstract)
object [x] (from M). One can understand this especially as a mathematical
function
This means that the elements x and y are in the relation R [x R y] if and
only if they are assigned the same ‘value’ f(x)=f(y), i.e. x R y : <=>
f(x)=f(y), i.e. if and only if [x]=[y]. The relation R thus induces a partition
of objects in B.
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The result is that one can choose a more or less abstractly distinguished
or even constructed set of objects as a replacement of some concretely
chosen realm B and use the replacement to talk (simulatively) about the
situation, relations and concerns in the original realm B. This is, more or
less, the theoretico-explanatory understanding underlying Frege’s whole
approach as it is used today in many areas of mathematics (definition by
abstraction).
As a point of departure for his construction, Frege chooses the concept
‘equinumerosity’ of concepts, i.e. as an equivalence-relation upon some
realm containing concepts referring to some realm of effective experience.
Equinumerosity is constructed as a one-to-one mapping between the
objects falling under some concepts F and G, respectively. For tactical
reasons I use [F] as an abbreviation for the equivalence-class of all the
concepts with the same extension as F, such that [F]:= {G/F R G}. This class
[F] is then mapped onto card (F). If one introduces the mapping ‘card’, i.e.
One can say that
F is equinumerous to G if and only if card (F)=card (G)
In the NL paper Erkenntnisquellen der Mathematik und der mathematischen
Naturwissenschaften, Frege retrospectively writes:
The disposition to produce proper names not corresponding to any
object is a property of language that proves disastrous for the
reliability of our thinking. If it happens in the context of art or
literature where anybody knows that they are dealing with
literature it does not lead to disadvantages… An especially
remarkable example however is the creation/formation of a proper
name following the pattern of ‘the extension (Umfang) of the concept
F’, e.g. in the case ‘the extension of the concept fixed star’. This
expression seems to designate an object because of the use of the
definite article ‘the’. But there is no such object which in a linguistically
correct manner could be designated as such (i.e. as literally
corresponding to the expression). From thence the paradoxa of set
theory developed, which killed this set theory. I myself have been
deceived in that way as well, i.e. when I tried to produce a logical
foundation for the numbers, in so far as I wanted to conceive of
numbers as sets31
([3.19], Vol. 1, 288, my emphasis)
It surely was the use of classes/value ranges within logic (i.e.
quantification over value ranges) that actually paved the way for the
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possibility of the derivation of Russell’s paradox by using the abstraction
principle (cf. [3.11], [3.14] and addendum: 253).
Perhaps one should pay attention to some minor points in GLA and not
only to the fact that Frege in GLA still uses his old conception of ‘judgeable
content’ (to which correspond BS expressions, i.e. concept-script
expressions as logical analysis of ordinary language expressions), which
later, due to the introduction of sense and reference, decomposed into
‘thought and truth value’.32
First, however, one might explain the intuition in order to grasp the
concept of number in the context of a general strategy and try to make
available the meaning of abstract knowledge by means of using our
logical/analytical abilities. This makes the claim of ‘general validity’
(Allgemeingültigkeit or general truth) of knowledge (cf. Kant) a matter of
controlled reproduction and therefore to be generally obligatory even in
thinking of ethics.
The intuition is that one thinks that one has understood or grasped
what, e.g., the number ‘three’ amounts to if one has grasped the
equivalence class of sets of three elements each. This means that speaking
of ‘three’ can be represented by a set of three elements.
In the GLA definition this is chosen in such a way that the ‘number
of F’ [card (F)] is defined by means of the extension (used as an
undefined basic concept) of the concept ‘equinumerous to F(X)’.33 But
‘equinumerous to F(X)’ can be given by an equivalence-class of
concepts:—what does it amount to to talk about someone having
grasped the concept of number or at least of having grasped what it
means to detect that a certain quantity of objects belongs to or falls
under a concrete concept F*?—independently of the special choice of a
concrete concept (a special representative from the repertoire [F]), one
can always decide whether F* belongs to the extension of
‘equinumerous to F’, which means that there is a G from [F] such that
G is equinumerous to F*, i.e. one should be able to ascribe the correct
number to F*.
Actually, one explains the behaviour of a person in the process of
counting by saying that this person needs to have grasped the equivalence
class [F] (in one go, so to speak) and by providing a necessary condition
(as the ‘condition for the possibility of knowledge’ in the Kantian sense)
which (theoretico-explanatorily speaking) needs to be actualized in order
to be able to count.
Now all this may sound extremely complicated and hardly any one
will claim that they have learned to count in just that way. One of the
problems in philosophy of science is that we look for (universal)
explanations which at the same time can be understood as descriptive, i.e.
as (even introspectively) action-guiding, even if they are not. So the
problem of ‘grasping’ in our case the meaning (here sense) of numbers by
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grasping the equivalence class [F] in one go may lead to a lot of basic
empirical misunderstandings in ordinary-language reception. Of course,
in philosophy one has the impression that one seeks a theoretical
understanding (e.g. of numbers) that just allows for a descriptive
projection into ordinary language, without doing much harm as long as
we stick to ordinary realms of experience. But sometimes we need to be
able to see those misapplications and be able to correct them—provided
we do not presuppose some universal, god-given, pre-established
harmony between language and the world. Frege paved the way for
stepping out of (a universal) language. A diversity of local language
games, which are not to be considered as language-relativism, may be a
good thing to which to remain alert, i.e. sensitive to reflective correction
and prepared to overcome the problems just hinted at, without, however,
falling into the traps of scepticism.
So again, all this may sound extremely complicated and again
hardly anyone will claim that they have learned to count in that way,
but that is not the point. Actually one only expresses what
(theoreticoexplanatorily, i.e. from a logical point of view) it means to
say of someone that they can count. The real problem is whether this
theoretical explanation is close enough to our everyday understanding
to be helpful.34
So the point is that our theoretico-explanatory talk must not be
projected in an action-guiding way upon reality/experience, i.e. it must
not be considered as a description of our effective actions or thinking.
Otherwise one would really have to be able to grasp the whole class [F] in
one go and for all times. In principle there are many actions which may be
compatible with one theoretical explanation.
In this context a short discussion of Frege’s distinction between sense
and reference may be of interest.35 In the sequel I shall use the special
expressions F-sense (F-Sinn=Frege-Sinn) and F-reference (F-
Bedeutung=Frege-Bedentung) for Frege’s special use of them.
Frege uses a discussion of claims of equality (as different to the position
in the BS) to introduce the distinction—between sense and reference as
two technical/theoretical components for the determination of meaning
(as the general expression for an undifferentiated understanding) of
linguistic expressions.
I shall here try to link up with the former discussion, especially the
relevance to build equivalence classes. A very good discussion of the
technical reasons for introducing the distinction between sense and
reference in the transition from the logic of the BS to the logic of the GGA
can be found in [3.46]. A discussion that links the logical and the
philosophical aspects from a philosophical point of view can be found in
Stekeler-Weithofen ([3.56], 272), whose approach I would like to adapt
and modify.
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The F-reference of a name is the named object.36 Truth values as F-
references are therefore attributed to the ‘sentences’ in logical
concept-script-notation (expressions of a logical analysis, eternal
sentences). The F-sense of a name or a sentence consists in the way
(of being given) in which the F-reference of a sentence is determined,
i.e. the reference of a name towards an object is mediated by the F-
sense. Thus: a sign expresses its F-SENSE and designates/gives/provides
its F-REFERENCE.
One can understand this in the following way: in the realm of the
names (anything that can act/work as a name in some distinguished
realm) the F-sense stipulates an equivalence-class of names with the same
‘F-reference’.37 The sign ‘morning star’ expresses its F-sense (F-Sinn) (i.e.
the way of givenness of the object Venus, e.g., as morning star) and
assigns (literally gives to us, provides us with) its F-reference (F-
Bedeutung) (i.e. designates the object ‘Venus’). The expression ‘the
number of children in this room’ thus designates, e.g., the number 3 and
it gives ‘3’ as an application of the concept ‘children in this room (x)’.
Expressions with the same F-reference thus should allow for a
replacement salva veritate.38
In grasping the sense-component of the meaning of a linguistic
expression, as it should show itself (explanatorily speaking) in the
grasping of the corresponding equivalence class, first of all the so-
called ‘context’ (of knowledge) is brought in. Thus, with the help of
the mediating rôle of sense in determining the reference, it becomes
clear how it is possible (i.e. in which way it is meaningful or in which
way one can talk about it meaningfully) to refer to an object
unambigously (in so far as it is an actual object), even without
knowing the object as such.39
Anyhow, one can explain what it means to say that there is
attributed one and only one truth value to a sentence without knowing
which value that may be. Of course that does not mean that this is
possible in all contexts (cf. intuitionistic or constructive mathematics
today).
Frege’s logical investigations are quite often of a theoretico-
explanatory kind, as I have tried to emphasize several times. But many
of his papers (like ‘Sense and Reference’ [3.9]) seem to deal with the
context of the so-called ordinary language, though he just uses it to
introduce technical terms with the help of nice-sounding
commonsensical names. In understanding the philosophical
consequences (depending on the aim of the philosophical
investigations) one should also do justice to the technical meaning and
not purely the commonsensical reception of expressions like ‘sense’ and
‘reference’. Still, the philosophical interests in the latter have proved
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fruitful, even though sometimes they are put out of context and seem to
have gained a life of their own.
Understanding the theoretico-explanatory moment of Frege’s idea
of sense can help us to focus not just on questions concerning the
meaning of linguistic expressions in the ‘ordinary language context’,
but also to take into account some constructive elements of, say,
ascending definitions of concepts ([3.19], vol. 1, 217–72). This can
help to counter the tendency to universalize common sense and to
correct dogmatisms of any given time. It can help to produce
flexibility and adaptability to new situations and positively influence
and balance the interplay between science and common sense—
ordinary life. Frege himself explicitly emphasized that talk about
numbers is talk concerned with content. The constructions used to
grasp the sense of mathematical expressions or claims are not literal
descriptions of what one thinks if one uses certain words. Meanings
usually are not given literally. The constructions used are ‘objects of
comparison’ which surely need to be supplemented by some
‘approximation from within’ the actual use of language. But only the
interplay between both sides can lead to a rewarding ‘reflexive
dealing’ with some realm of objects.
REMARKS CONCERNING THE CONTEXT
OF FREGE’S PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE
One starting point for an approach to Frege’s philosophy of language can
be the question, ‘how one could talk or communicate about abstract
entities/objects in such a way that one can understand what abstract
objects are’ and also in such a way that one can handle those objects (so to
speak) reasonably.40 This presupposes an evaluation by both common
sense and scientific understanding and furthermore a connection between
both, since via his prose, even a scientist uses common sense when
making sense of his findings. If one poses the question in such a way, one
clearly has a picture, a sort of understanding, in mind of how language
actually works.
It is to Michael Dummett’s credit that he has focused especially on the
linguistic interests of Frege’s oeuvre, i.e. the philosophical origins and
consequences of Frege’s philosophy of language, and thus to have led to
philosophy of language, although his presentation or emphasis is
controversial and not everyone wants to follow in his footsteps.
Dummett emphasizes the rôle of the so-called ‘context principle’,
which, roughly, says that only in the context of a sentence does a word
have a proper meaning, and thus contradicts any understanding of Frege
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that elaborates his conception of language as naive and as simply a
picture of the world.
The context principle plays an important part in Frege’s GLA: ‘to fix
the…conditions of sentences in which numerical terms occur’.41 In the
GLA it is finally quoted in [3.6], section 106, ‘to remind the reader of an
indispensable step in the preceding argument’ ([3.37], 200). The
consequences of the context principle for the philosophy of language, i.e.
the consequences it has for our modern understanding of language and
thus for our ‘understanding of meaning’, leads towards a ‘truth-
functional semantics’, i.e. one needs to know the truth conditions of
sentences containing ‘expressions of interest’, i.e. expressions, whose
meaning we want to grasp.42
The context principle can be used and applied in this sense as a
theoretical starting point to produce a modern, linguistically orientated
reconstruction of Frege’s philosophy.
There is another sense in which the significance of Frege’s ‘semantic
theory’ can be viewed. Truth-functional semantics can be used only as
the result of a technical necessity to understand the meanings of the
parts of sentences from outside (by way of meaning partitions of
sentences) because in the course of logical analysis and reconstruction of
the sentence one has attributed exactly one truth value to the sentence as
a whole. This does not mean that the extension of the context principle is
wrong or unimportant; the aim is rather to focus, in a stronger sense, on
Frege’s anti-psychologism and the possibilities for a non-
introspectivistic philosophy, a philosophy not resting upon
psychological abstraction, in contradistinction to Husserl who might be
interpreted in this way.
The problem especially concerns the discussion about the
determination of the domain of reference of some language—talking, for
example, about abstract objects. Dummett writes: ‘there is a further
question to be settled, especially when a term-forming operator, and
therewith a whole range of new terms (or items/entities), are being
introduced: the question of suitably determining the domain of
quantification,’ [3.37]. This, however, argues Dummett, was ‘persistently
neglected [by Frege], a neglect which, as we shall see, proved in the end to
be fatal’ (Ibid.).
Stekeler-Weithofer puts this straight in arguing that Frege was shifting
to and fro between two incompatible points of view:
(1) that the universe of all objects of speech be pregiven such that
(e.g.) the meaning of equality has (already) a fixed/precise/ ready
meaning and (2) that the meaning of a name be given purely by its
use within sentences.
([3.56], 272)
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The problem concerns the constructive character of Frege’s means of
expression—his language, i.e. its characteristic of being constitutive for
objects both in the case of the abstraction principle and in the case of the
talk of equality.43
If not for reasons of defence, at least to put matters straight, one
should point out the fact that Frege again and again is wavering
between a mathematical use of language, between mathematical
practice and its projection onto commonsensical matters. This holds
especially for originally logico-technical concepts like sense and
reference, which only later (in the context of introducing the terms and
giving examples from ordinary language to show their applicability and
importance) gain an enormous significance for philosophy of
language.44
Later in his life Frege was well aware of this fact of language division.
In his posthumus paper concerning ‘logics in mathematics’ (cf. [3.19],
1:219), Frege explicitly talks about a distinction between technical terms
and commonsensical expressions. In this context, one could talk of a sort
of ‘split semantics’ ([3.28] and [3.29]), which Dummett somehow seems to
admit when he writes: ‘The language of the mathematical sciences differs
markedly from that of everyday discourse: it could be said that the
semantics of abstract terms bifurcates, according as we are concerned with
one or the other’ [3.37].
Phrased more generally, our problem is the constitution of objects by
means of using a language—considering Frege’s experience and
background as a mathematician, one can interpret his findings in the
following way. Frege provides us with a theoretico-explanatory analysis
of how language works, an analysis which then is compatible with several
concrete and effective procedures to determine, e.g., a ‘domain of
quantification’ (a favourite problem in modern linguistically orientated
philosophy—‘To be is to be the value of a bound variable’ [3.52]).
Expressed, however, in Kantian terms, i.e. in the way that is relevant to
Frege considering his philosophical background and upbringing, one
could say that Frege tried to formulate the ‘conditions for the possibility of
determining the realm of reference (the [logical] domain of
quantification), or in a more modern way: giving formally determined
necessary conditions for just that. In interpreting and trying to understand
Frege, one has to take into account the language of his time and his
background of experience, and therefore need not take everything too
literally when viewed from a modern understanding of language.
Considering the determination of the reference of ‘numbers’, it is, from
a mathematical point of view, essential first to state/identify the formal
properties that must be fulfilled by something that should be able to work
as a number (presupposing that they link up to our ordinary intuitions or
those of the mathematicians, just in case one wants to reconstruct those
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intuitions).45 Afterwards, say after the definition of ‘zero’, some entities—
quite often not a single object—will be presented in a way that the
possibility is formulated as to how to identify and use something as ‘zero’.
One more or less keeps an open mind about what might be expected as a
definite determination of a realm of reference.
Dummett is concerned with this in so far as he writes:
On the Grundlagen view, we can ask whether the truth-conditions
of sentences containing a term of the kind in question have been
fixed, and (we can ask) for a statement of those truth-conditions;
we cannot ask after the mechanisms by which the truth-values of those
sentences are determined, nor, therefore, after the rôle of the given term in
that mechanism.
([3.37], 207, my emphasis)
The aim of a logical definition (e.g. of numbers), however, should be
that it should hold in any possible world (as it is usually attributed to
Leibniz and taken up by Frege), which means it should be independent
of the special choice of the mechanisms for the determination of the truth
value of a sentence containing a word for designating, so to speak, a
number.
This also means, however, that it is enough to know one single counter-
example, one single concept, such that there does not exist a mechanism
to determine whether an object falls under the concept, to quash the claim
for utmost generality, i.e. for universal logical validity.
Now if one presupposes that in demanding (Frege’s proposal) to start
logic with ‘judgements’46 means that a sentence (as a whole) gets
attributed a truth value and that one determines ‘meaning’ starting from
the outside, with the surface, so to speak, and not by abstracting from
introspective experiences, i.e. by decomposing a sentence into
meaningful components (only in the context of a sentence do words
have a meaning/reference), then one can understand this matter in the
following way. One expresses only what it means (theoretico-
explanatorily speaking) to talk about a word having reference, what it
means to ascribe some reference to a word, but still has to determine or
define the truth conditions for the sentence containing the word in
question. So one (might) know that it should have some reference but
has not yet specified it. One knows what it means/amounts to look for
some reference, but one still has to determine compatible mechanisms,
which may be context-dependent and which attribute the truth values
by way of judgement.
This can either (wrongly!) lead to projecting the theoretico-explanatory
structures onto the world, i.e. turning them into effective procedures, as it
is sometimes the case in classical philosophy—although there ‘theories’
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tend to be rather introspective-abstractive. Alternatively, one can deal
with unreflected (?) skills, which are then considered to make up for the
effective use of some language.
According to Frege, the distinction between sense and reference can be
extremely important, especially in the context of philosophy of language,
in so far as on the one hand it can help to systematize the referring habits
of human beings in a theoretico-explanatory way. On the other hand, this
distinction can, if it does not just project a theoretical understanding, help
to take care of the actual mechanisms to fix the reference of the
expressions of something used as a language. These actual mechanisms
stand in contradistinction to those one seems to use consciously (or one
appeals to), and which enable one to keep in mind those many facets of
understanding and communicating ‘meaning’ (in a modern sense) that
seem to be relevant today.
REFLECTIONS ON THE CONSEQUENCES
OF FREGE’S WORK
Apart from perhaps the second section in this chapter, I have placed the
emphasis on the philosophy of logic because I think that the other
important aspects of Frege’s work, such as the philosophy of mathematics
or the philosophy of language, become more or less self-explanatory if
one has a clear picture of Frege’s conception of logic. This, however, is not
true of the history of Frege’s influence, especially if one tries to distinguish
between a logical or objective core of Frege’s philosophy and its reception.
Though many of Frege’s ideas, for example, his notation of logic, were
taken up and transformed outside Germany (by, for example, Jourdain
and Russell) he might have suffered a fate similar to Wittgenstein with
regard to Austria. Perhaps the best-known influences and effects of his
work can be found in ‘analytical philosophy’, of which he has been
considered the ‘grandfather’ by Dummett (with Wittgenstein as the link
between).
I shall now leave the well-trodden paths of traditional analytical
philosophy and consider Frege from a meta-philosophical point of view.
In doing so, I shall closely analyse Frege’s anti-psychologism.
Let us presuppose that one can interpret/reconstruct Frege so that we
can say that it was his aim to gain access to an understanding of the meaning
of mathematical or of abstract knowledge in general. Furthermore, this
access should not be considered to rest upon synthetical (empirical)
sources of knowledge and especially not upon some introspective
perception.
In order to do this, one tries to make use of an analytical source of
knowledge, which, in the Kantian sense, should also produce the
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justification of something as knowledge. Thus, one could interpret Frege’s
approach as a new method, or rather, way of reflective thinking, leading
to a new kind of actualization/realization of an essential act of
philosophy, namely the provision of a possibility for a correction of
knowledge by reflection with the help on an analysis of meaning. In other
words, Frege’s approach would lead to a literal understanding of how
knowledge comes/is brought about.47
With respect to a reconstructive interpretation, i.e. trying to make sense
(of Frege’s approach) within a modern perspective (on philosophy) and
with hindsight (of the experiences of this century), we simply cannot
abandon, these considerations and presuppose an understanding or
perhaps conception of philosophy that is at least twofold (see below) and
definitely goes beyond the idea that even modern philosophy is nothing
but footnotes to Plato:
1 In our thinking about and in viewing the world, we have to do justice
to philosophical attitudes in attributing an important quality to them,
namely that philosophical thinking should help us reflectively to
correct mistakes and guide our view towards possible solutions if we
are stuck; i.e. if we do not know how to go on (in Wittgenstein’s
sense).
2 This means that one presupposes that occasionally we can be
deceived (or experience being deceived), that we can have the insight
into mistakes and the experience of errors and again, at least
occasionally, we can reduce these experiences to the fact that in some
cases in our behaviour we are misguided by some false picture or
wrong sort of information about the world.
But it is exactly the second point which already presupposes some sort of
explanation (eventually leading to a locally applicable theory) why and
how some behaviour in others and ourselves, experienced as a mistake,
came about. It aims at a reflective correction (of both the theory and the
behaviour) in trying to correct the cause (the picture in use).
Loosely speaking, in developing such a (reflective) theory, we will
eventually turn it into ‘effective use’, i.e. the theory will be projected upon
the level of individual acting and finally will be activated in an action-
guiding manner.
At the level of daily life there may turn up philosophically motivated
but individually coloured questions. These questions about the pictures
that (might) have seduced us (in our actions) will have a rather
constitutive character and, if we want to talk about them consciously, it
will be unreflected skills (classified as such from ‘outside’) which guide
our behaviour; skills that may be replaced by other, more successful or
effective ones according to the tasks we have to settle. If those skills are
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reflected they will become effective, i.e. can be ‘re-’ followed/ re-
instantiated consciously.
On the other hand, one can characterize the (research?) programme
of classifical/traditional philosophy quite crudely as ‘philosophical
reflection’—whether at a theoretical level or in the context of daily life.
In any case it takes ‘inner perception’ as a point of departure. This is
the situation when one asks to understand the content of some
‘message’, of something intended for communication. Then it seems to
be essential to understand what it is that is ‘meant’. If one asks ‘what is
actually the case?’ (if one is insecure) one is more or less said to be
trying to grasp the truth by getting behind the screen of the
appearances, trying to tear (away) the veil hiding reality from our view
(to use the old metaphor).
But the aim of this enterprise (whether conscious or not) was to provide
knowledge for correcting mistakes, so that explanatorily one might speak
of corrective reflection.
Especially with respect to logic and the coming about of mathematical
knowledge, Frege seems to reject a plainly introspective-abstractive
access to an understanding of the content of the meaning of arithmetic
or, more generally, abstract knowledge (given the interpretation
proposed in this article). For an understanding of the so-called content
of arithmetical knowledge, Frege presupposes an ‘analytical source of
knowledge’, which in the case of arithmetic should accomplish what in
the the case of the ‘psychologistic logicians’ was achieved by the use of
‘inner perception’.
Frege’s method can now be regarded as having consisted in providing
the general core (meaning), resting on objective thought, of ‘abstract/
mathematical entities’ by using a ‘logical’ (i.e. a concept script) analysis
(presentation). Frege tried to achieve it by cutting up ‘truth’ (from outside so
to speak) and building up meaning (understanding the content of an
expression) externally, by realizations in a model, as one might say today.
This procedure of building up meaning should help to make accessible (in
a controlled and reproducible way) the meaning of abstract concepts (of
mathematics), which leads to the problem sometimes called ‘paradox of
analysis’.48
Given this understanding,49 the problem is now how fruitfully to
apply Frege’s methodology to the ‘reflective’ concern of modern
‘philosophical thinking’ as described above, thus getting from the so-
called ‘What is (really the case)?’ question and the question, ‘What can I
know?’ to the more promising questions, ‘What can I understand?’ and
‘How (depending on the language in use) is understanding brought
about?’
This last question is important for the ‘coming about’ of
an‘understanding of scientific knowledge’, in which abstract
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knowledge plays an essential part, especially so with respect to
‘reflective corrections’ in the context of the application of science and
technology.50
Frege’s approach can now be understood (with respect to interpreting
the consequences of his work and taking care of some
misunderstandings and the historical context of his achievements) as
pointing towards a new way of dealing with reflection; a new way of
actualizing reflection.
Occasionally one has equated this approach with a purely ‘logical
analysis’ of language, an interpretation which some of Frege’s remarks at
the end of the introduction to BS somehow seem to support.51 The
question should rather be ‘How can the task of “reflective correction” be
met by or, methodologically speaking, be instantiated by linguistic
analysis?’
I think one can credit Wittgenstein with having executed the turn to
linguistic analysis as a philosophical programme, though the method
needs some elaboration or maybe improvement (given the road to
linguistically orientated analytical philosophy).
A very good analysis concerning the connections between
Wittgenstein’s Tractatus-logico-philosophicus and Frege (primarily with
respect to logic!) can be found in Stekeler Weithofer ([3.56], 248).
The replacement of the reflective-abstract method assumed to be
characteristic of the primarily classical/traditional approach in
philosophy as, for example, demonstrated in Husserl, by the method of
linguistic analysis (as demonstrated by the ‘Wittgenstein of the
Philosophical Investigations’) leads to a replacement of Frege’s ‘concept
script’ analysis of ‘expressions’, produced by using and thus provided by
the ‘objective’ language of BS, by a meaning analysis within ordinary
language.52
This kind of replacement of the original Fregean approach can now,
as a system of rules for its use, be followed up on its own as a new
programme for doing philosophy. Today, though, one sometimes has
the impression that the programme serves just ‘as an end in itself’. Not
only the general context and aims of philosophy but also the
connection to Frege’s original aims, and thus to the idea of
Wittgenstein’s theory of names as a reaction to Frege (cf. [3.58]), have
been lost from sight.
The possibilities of newly actualizing the reflective task(s) of
philosophy with the help of an analytical approach, especially in the sense
of Wittgenstein’s later philosophy, are not yet exhausted. Though we have
to keep in mind that in comparison with the traditional (introspectively
abstractive) approaches these possibilities are just one-side-of-the-coin
‘philosophy’ and must not be treated dogmatically, i.e. be taken as an
absolute method for pursuing philosophy (just as on the other hand,
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performing philosophy in the traditional way sometimes gives that
impression).
I think that today, perhaps more than ever before, it is essential to take
into account the interplay of both sides, analytical and traditional
philosophy, science and everyday-life, analysis and tradition, because
otherwise we—considered as flies in Wittgenstein’s famous picture—will
definitely not be able to find our way out of the fly-bottle and will perhaps
end up on a Möbius strip53, the prototype of a ‘single or just one-sided
surface’.
NOTES
1 Cf. [3.36], (11–12) and [3.37], 111.
2 Cf. [3.53] and [3.54] for the use of ‘functional’, cf. [3.47], 47.
3 Repr. in [3.24], 1–49.
4 Repr. in [3.24], 50–83.
5 Repr. in [3.19], 2:275–301.
6 The GGA contains decisive developments with respect to Frege’s logical
ideas, i.e. the introduction of value ranges and the distinction between sense
and reference (first introduced in SB [3.9]).
7 In doing so, I follow the rather technical presentation of Frege’s achievements
in [3.46] fairly closely.
8 I use the term ‘epistemic resolution-level’ for this phenomenon and it may be
interesting that Frege was befriended by Ernst Abbé who developed the
formula for the resolution level of microscopes (working with Zeiss) and that
Frege did use the metaphor of the microscope in the introduction of the BS
[3.3], xi and later in SB [3.9].
9 Cf. the problem of the Paradoxon der Analyse as discussed in [3.49], and in
[3.35] and [3.37], 141. This paradox concerns a fundamental difference about
the basics of traditional and analytical philosophy, which can be illustrated
aptly with a comparison between Husserl’s and Frege’s.
10 I refer to his 1914 paper ‘Logik in der Mathematick’ in [3.19], 1:219–72, esp.
p. 277.
11 Cf. Frege’s dealing with Boole in Boole’s rechnende Logik und die Begriffsschrift
(1880/81) in [3.19], 1:9–52 and Boole’s logische Formelsprache und meine
Begriffsschrift (1882) in [3.19], 1:53–9.
12 As an example take the sentence There are infinitely many prime numbers,
i.e. to each prime number there exists a greater one.’ This sentence could
not be analysed in classical logic nor in Boolean logic either.
13 To consider a sentence as a sentence means to regard it under a special aspect,
i.e. not to consider the content of the sentence as such but solely whether it is
true or false (as a sort of attributable property of a sentence, i.e. if an
expression is classified as a sentence).
14 I mention that particular sign combination here but the use of quotation
marks as a metalinguistic way of talking ‘about’ was not known to Frege,
although there are hints in a later paper, Logische Allgemeinheit (not before
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1923) [3.19], I: 278–83; esp. p. 280, where he uses the expressions Darlegungs-
und Ililfssprache.
15 ‘Der waagrechte Strich, aus dem das Zeichen “ٛ” gebildet ist, verbindet die
darauf folgenden Zeichen zu einem Ganzen und auf dies Ganze bezicht sich
die Bejahung, welche durch den senkrechten Strich am linken Ende des
waagrechten ausgedrückt wird’ ([3.3], 2; my emphasis).
16 ‘Was auf den Inhaltsstrich folgt, muß immer einen beurteilbaren Inhalt haben’
(Ibid.).
17 That seems to be the prevailing interpretation, e.g. [3.46], 24.
18 [3.46], 14.
19 Cf. [3.48] and [3.50], Figs 2/3.
20 [3.11], 15: ‘Die Einführung der Bezeichnung für die Wertverlaufe scheint mit
eine der folgenreichste Ergänzung meiner Begriffschrift zu sein’ (From the
way in which we talk about abstract entities it can follow what abstract
entities are for us, what they mean, how we should treat them).
21 It is interesting to see that Frege himself here already uses quotation marks
in the modern sense and therefore shows an intuitive understanding of the
difference between object language and meta language.
22 An ontological problem arises: Is it possible to understand ‘is’ just in an
explanatory manner?
23 One needs to get a feeling from the definition to understand what he means
by logical.
24 Judgeable content.
25 If a is not element of ext(F), then G[a:F]=card (F) or n+1 according to our
presupposition. We will need that below in connection with Russell’s
paradox.
26 0 is an element of [␺] or rather [equal to 0[(X)], the extension of the concept ␺.
But 0 is not an element of [equal to 0].
27 [3–39], [3–40].
28 Taking up an idea from Mathematik in der Logik, I would like to call these
definitions ‘ascending’ and not ‘constructive’, as the term aufsteigend is
sometimes translated in this context.
29 [3.24], 2: esp. p. 51.
30 The formal conditions for an equivalence relation are: if a, b and c designate
elements of B such that the relation may hold between them, then the relation
R [a R a] obtains between any element with itself: ‘a R a’ (reflexivity), further:
‘a R b implies b R a’ (symmetry) and last but not least: ‘a R b and b R c imply a
R c’ (transitivity).
31 ‘Eine für die Zuverlässigkeit des Denkens verhängnisvolle Eigenschaft
der Sprache ist jhre Neigung, Eigennamen zu schaffen, denen kein
Gegenstand entspricht. Wenn das in der Dichtung geschieht, die jeder als
Dichtung versteht, so hat das keinen Nachtei…. Ein besonders
merkwürdiges Beispiel dazu ist die Bildung eines Eigennamens nach dem
Muster “der Umfang des ßegriffes a”, z. B. “der Umfang des Begriffes
Fixstern”. Dieser Ausdruck scheint einen Gegenstand zu bezeichnen
wegen des bestimmten Artikels aber es gibt keinen Gegenstand, der
sprachgemäß so bezeicbnet werden könnte. Hieraus sind die Paradoxien der
Mengenlechre entstanden, die diese Mengenlehre vernichtet haben. Ich
selbst bin bei dem Versuche, die Zahlen logische zu begründen, dieser
läuschung unterlegen, indem ich die Zahlen als Mengen auffassen wollte’.
[3.19], 1:288, my emphasis, I have deliberately produced a very free
translation here!)
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32 The picture or idea that sentences are ascribed a truth value as their
Bedeutung= ‘reference’ will then be projected upon our natural language and
eventually leads to a holistic conception of the meaning (t can be instantiated
as reference/Bedeutung or sense/Sinn) of sentences and finally to the context
principle in determining the Bedeutung/reference of expressions by
decomposition.
33 I sometimes deliberately use the language of functions to highlight the
theoretical, i.e. functional, understanding of concepts.
34 It is definitely helpful if we want to construct computers and if we want to be
clear about ascribing the ability of counting or computing to them. But even
there the physical operation is quite distinct from our way of talking about or
ascribing some property to it. What may be interesting, however, is whether a
certain mental disposition or attitude may be helpful if we interact with
machines, i.e. if we want to handle them, if we want to use them
appropriately—whatever that may be.
35 Explicity introduced in [3.9] but indicated already in [3.8].
36 Name is here considered as attributed ‘value’ like f(x); an object x being
something that can be an argument in a function.
37 To such a class can be attributed a truth value. All this does not concern
indirect speech!
38 Cf. the famous Leibniz principle (e.g. [3.6], 76 ff.).
39 Remember that in mathematics and even physics there are defined/
calculated objects (finite groups, positrons) which one knows exist, though it
sometimes takes years to find examples of them.
40 I.e. makes uses of them or applies them in accordance with everyday needs or
perhaps in agreement with arguments to show the necessity of the application
of some scientific tools as the means to gain results that are desirable by
standards of daily life. Now all that is a tricky matter and only makes sense
with hindsight from this point in time.
41 According to Dummett, this leads to essential consequences for the
philosophy of language in general ([3.37], 209–22), although in the GGA it is
only used in a generalized form. (Ibid., ch 17, ‘The Context Principle in
Grundgesetze’.)
42 ‘The context principle in fact also governs terms for actual objects, since a
grasp of a proper name involves an understanding of its use in sentences’
(Ibid., 207).
43 Stekeler-Weithofer ([3.56]) thinks that Frege did not give, up the context
principle in the GGA, while Kutschera ([3.46]) believes that it does not play
any further role in the GGA, cf. also [3.37].
44 In Frege’s paper Der Gedanke [3.16], which is concerned with logical
investigations. This paper has been taken up in modern ‘philosophy of mind’.
45 One may wonder of course whether ‘numbers’ are anything we encounter in
an ordinary life that is not guided by our cultural upbringing with its set of
instituted knowledge.
46 Remember that the classical approach to logic was the partition into: concept,
judgement, inference (in syllogistics: deduction, induction, etc.).
47 The expression ‘coming about’ needs some consideration: its meaning is
ambiguous, i.e. it can be understood as literally descriptive, i.e. as the
presentation of a set of rules about how to achieve a result (like an
algorithm in a computer program) but also as theoretico-explanatory. In
the latter case several ways to turn the theoretical understanding into
advice for action (making it an action-guiding device) are compatible with
the theory.
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48 Cf. [3.35]. This means that, as in the case with Plato, a mathematical method in
a more general sense has been made fruitful for philosophy.
49 This presentation of the problem situation is of course not ‘true to the
historical facts’. Frege was interested in anti-psychologism (from our point of
view) and as we see from his thesis in analytical sources of knowledge.
50 Except one has the opinion that human beings cannot make mistakes and
therefore reflective corrections are inessential and only disturb the peace of
the ordinary mind on the positivistic pillow.—‘Everything is what it is’ as
Bishop Buttler is reported to have said—and so we need not care to think
about the world.
51 Cf. [3.3], vi-vii, introduction.
Wenn es eine Aufgabe der Philosophie ist, die Herrschaft des Wortes
über den menschlichen Geist zu brechen, indem sie die Täuschungen
aufdeckt, die durch den Sprachgebrauch über die Beziehungender
Begriffe oft fast unvermeidlich entstehen, indem sie den Gedanken von
demjenigen befreit, womit ihn allein die Beschaffenheit des
sprachlichen Ausdrucksmittels behafter, so wird meine Begriffschrift,
für diese Zwecke weiter ausgebildet, den Philosophen ein brauchbares
Werkzeug werden können.
Freillich gibt auch sie [die BS], wie es bei einem äußeren Darstellungsmittel wohl
nicht anders möglich ist, den Gedanken nicht rein wieder…
If it is one of the tasks of philosophy to break the domination of the
word over the human spirit by laying bare the misconception that
through the use of language often almost unavoidably arise concerning
the relations between concepts and by freeing thought from that which
only the means of expression of ordinary language, constituted as they
are, saddle it, then my ideography, further developed for these
purposes, can become a useful tool for the philosopher. To be sure, it
too will fail to reproduce ideas in a pure form, and this is probably
inevitable when ideas are represented by concrete means.
([3–57], 7)
52 Cf. [3.59], 43 ‘The meaning of a word is its use within the language.’
53 Or some sort of topological generalization of it, e.g. Klein’s bottle: a closed, one-
sided surface that penetrates itself.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Selected Bibliography of Frege’s Writings
3.1 Über eine geometrische Darstellung der imaginären Gebilde in der Ebene (On
a Geometrical Representation of Imaginary Forms in the Plane).
Inaugural dissertation of the Faculty of Philosophy at the
University of Göttingen, submitted as a doctoral thesis by G.Frege
of Wismar, Jena, 1873 (75pp. + appendix of diagrams).
3.2 Rechnungsmethoden, die sick auf eine Erweiterung des Größenbegriffs
gründen (Methods of Calculation based on an Extension of the
Concept of Magnitude). Dissertation presented by Dr Gottlob Frege
for full membership of the Faculty of Philosophy at the University
of Jena. Jena 1874 (26pp. + curriculum vitae).
3.3 Begriffsschrift, eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete Formelprache des
reinen Denkens (Concept-Script: A Formula Language of Pure
Thought modelled on Arithmetical Language). L.Ebert, Halle, 1879
(88pp.).
3.4 Über die wissenschaftliche Berechtigung der Begriffsschrift (On the
Scientific Justification of Concept-Script). In Zeitschrift für
Philosophie und Philosophische Kritik (Journal of Philosophy and
Philosophical Criticism) LXXXI (1882):48–56 (repr. in BS/
Darmstadt).
3.5 Über den Zweck der Begriffsschrift (On the Purpose of Concept-Script). In
Jenaische Zeitschrift für Naturwissenschaft (Jena Journal of Science) XVI
(1883), (suppl.): 1–10. Lecture delivered at the meeting of the Jena
Society for Medicine and Science, 27 January 1882
3.6 Die Grundlagen der Arithmetik (The Foundations of Arithmetic). A
Logico-mathematical Enquiry into the Concept of Number,
W.Loebner, Breslau, 1884 (119pp.). New impression: M. and
H.Marcus, Breslau, 1934. Facsimile reprint of the new impression:
Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft (Scientific Book Society),
Darmstadt, 1961, and G.Olms, Hildesheim, 1961 (119pp.).
3.7 Über formale Theorien der Arithmetik (On Formal theories of Arithmetic).
In: Jenaische Zeitschrift für Naturwissenschaft (Jena Journal of Science)
XIX (1886), (suppl.):94–104. Lecture delivered at the meeting of the
Jena Society for Medicine and Science, 17 July 1885.
3.8 Funktion und Begriff (Function and Concept). Lecture delivered at the
meeting of the Jena Society for Medicine and Science, 9 January
1891. H.Pohle, Jena, 1891 (31pp.).
3.9 Über Sinn und Bedeutung (On Sense and Reference). In Zeitschrift für
Philosophie und Philosophische Kritik (Journal of Philosophy and
Philosophical Criticism) C (1892):25–50.
3.10 Über Begriff und Gegenstand (On Concept and Object). In
Vierteljahresschrift für wissenschaftliche Philosophie (Scientific
Philosophy Quarterly) XVI (1892):192–205.
3.11 Grundgesetze der Arithmetik (The Basic Laws of Arithmetic: Following
the Principles of the Concept-Script. Vol. 1). H.Pohle, Jena, 1893
(253pp. with revisions). Facsimile reprint: Wissenschaftliche
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PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE, LOGIC AND MATHEMATICS
Buchgesellschaft (Scientific Book Society), Darmstadt, 1962, and
G.Olms, Hildesheim, 1962.
3.12 Über die Begriffsschrift des Herrn Peano und meine eigene (On Peano’s
Concept-Script and My Own). In Berichte über die Verhandlungen
der Königlichen Sächsischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Leipzig, Mathematisch-Physikalishe Classe (Reports on the
Proceedings of the Royal Saxon Society for Science in Leipzig,
Mathematics/Physics Division) XLVII (1897):361–78. Lecture
delivered at the extraordinary meeting of the Society held on 6
July 1896.
3.13 Über die Zahlen des Herrn H.Schubert (On H.Schubert’s Numbers), H.
Pohle, Jena, 1899 (32pp.).
3.14 Grundgesetze der Aritbmetik (The Basic Laws of Arithmetic: Following
the Principles of the Concept-Script, vol. 2), H.Pohle, Jena, 1903
(265pp. with revisions and glossary of terms). Facsimile reprint:
Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft (Scientific Book Society),
Darmstadt, 1962, and G.Olms, Hildesheim, 1962
3.15 Was ist eine Funktion? (What is a Function?). Festschrift dedicated to
Ludwig Boltzmann on the Occasion of his Sixtieth Birthday, 20
February 1904.J. A.Barth, Leipzig, 1904, pp.656–66.
3.16 Der Gedanke (The Thought). A Logical Enquiry. In Beiträge zur
Philosophie des deutschen Idealismus (Contributions to German
Idealistic Philosophy) 1 (1918):58–77.
3.17 Die Verneinung (Negation). A Logical Enquiry. In: Beiträge zur
Philosophie des deutschen Idealismus (Contributions to German
Idealistic Philosophy) 1 (1918):143–57.
3.18 Logische Untersuchungen (Logical Investigations). Part 3: Sequence of
Thought. In Beiträge zur Philosophie des deutschen Idealismus
(Contributions to German Idealistic Philosophy) III (1923):36–51.
3.19 Gottlob Frege: Nachgelassene Schriften und wissenschaftlicher Briefwechsel
(Gottlob Frege: Posthumous Writings and Correspondence), Hans
Hermes, Friedrich Kambartel and Friedrich Kaulbach Posthumous
(eds), Hamburg, 1969. Vol. 1: Writings (1969); Vol. 2:
Correspondence (1976).
Important Sources
3.20 The Foundations of Arithmetic. A logico-mathematical enquiry into the
concept of number. Oxford, Blackwell, 1950 and New York,
Philosophical Library, 1950, 2nd rev. edn 1953, repr. 1959. XII, XI,
119pp.+XII, XI, 119pp. Dual-language German/English edn.
Transl., foreword and notes by J.L.Austin. Repr. of the English text
of this edn: New York, Harper, 1960.
3.21 Funktion, Begriff, Bedeutung (Function, Concept, Meaning). Five Studies
in Logic, edited and with an introduction by Günther Patzig,
Göttingen, Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1962 (101 pp.). 2nd rev. edn,
1966 (103pp.).
3.22 Bergriffsschrift und andere Aufsätze (Concept-Script and Other Essays),
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2nd edn annotated by E.Husserl and H.Scholz, ed. Ignacio Angelelli.
Darmstadt Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft (Scientific Book
Society), dt, 1964, and Hildesheim, G.Olms, 1964 (124pp.). (BS/
Darmstadt)
3.23 Logische Untersuchungen. Herausgegeben und eingeleitet von Günther
Patzig (Studies in Logic, edited and with an introduction by Günther
Patzig), Göttingen, Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1966 (142pp.).
3.24 Kleine Schriften. Herausgegeben von Ignado Angelelli (Minor Works,
edited by Ignacio Angelelli). Darmstadt, Wissenschaftliche
Buchgesellschaft (Scientific Book Society), 1967 and Hildesheim,
G.Olms, 1967 (434pp.) (Contains doctoral thesis and dissertation
[3.1 and 3.2.]
3.25 Begriffsschrift: A Formula Language, Modelled upon that of Arithmetic, for
Pure Thought, in Jean van Heijenoort (ed.) From Frege to Gödel. A
Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931, Cambridge, Mass.,
Harvard University Press, 1967, pp.1–82.
3.26 The Thought. A Logical Enquiry; in P.F.Strawson (ed.) Philosophical Logic,
London, Oxford University Press, 1967, pp. 17–3 8.
General Bibliography
3.27 Benacerraf, P. ‘Frege: The Last Logicist’, in Midwest Studies in Philosophy
6 (1981):17–35.
3.28 Born, R. ‘Schizo-Semantik: Provokationen zum Thema
Bedeutungstheorien und Wissenschaftsphilosophie im
Allgemeinen’, in Conceptus, Jahrgang XVII. (41/42), (1983):101–16.
3.29 ——‘Split Semantics’, in Artificial Intelligence—The Case Against,
London, Routledge, 1987.
3.30 Church, A. Introduction to Mathematical Logic, Princeton, Princeton
University Press, 1956.
3.31 Dedekind, R. Was sind und was sollen die Zahlen? Braunschweig, Vieweg
and Sohn, 1888.
3.32 Dummett, M. ‘Frege, Gottlob’, in P.Edwards (ed.) The Encyclopedia of
Philosophy, London, Collier MacMillan, 1967, pp. 225–37.
3.33 ——The Interpretation of Frege’s Philosophy, London, Duckworth, 1981.
3.34 ——Frege. Philosophy of Language. London, Duckworth, 1981.
3.35 ——‘Frege and the Paradox of Analysis’, 1987, in Frege and Other
Philosophers, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1991.
3.36 ——Ursprünge der analytischen Philosophie, Frankfurt/M, Suhrkamp, 1988.
3.37 ——Frege. Philosophy of Mathematics, Cambridge, Masses, Cambridge
University Press, 1991.
3.38 Fischer, K. Geschichte der neueren Philosophie, 2nd rev. edn, Heidelberg,
Basserman 1869.
3.39 Frêchet, M. ‘Relations entre les notions de limite et de distance’ in
Trans. American Mathematical Society 19 (1918):54.
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3.41 Husserl, E. Die Philosophie der Arithmetick, Halle, Martinus Nijhoff,
1891.
3.42 Jourdain P.E.B. ‘The development of the theories of mathematical logic
and the principles of mathematics’, Quarterly Journal of Pure and
Applied Mathematics 43 (1912):237–69.
3.43 Kitcher, P. ‘Frege, Dedekind and the Philosophy of Mathematics’, in
L.Haarparanta and J.Hintikka (eds) Frege Sythesized, Dordrecht,
Reidel, 1986, pp. 299–343.
3.44 Klein, F. ‘Zur Interpretation der komplexenElemente in der
Geometrie’, Annals of Mathematics 22 (1872); repr. in R.Fricke and
A.Ostrowski (eds) Gesammelte Mathematische Abhandlungen, vol. 1,
Berlin, Julius Springer, 1922, pp. 402–5.
3.45 ——F.Vorlesungen über Nicht-Euklidische Geometrie. Berlin, Julius
Springer, 1928.
3.46 Kutschera, F.V. Gottlob Frege. Eine Einführung in sein Werk, Berlin,
Walter de Gruyter, 1989.
3.47 Lotze, H. Logik. Drei Bücher von Denken vom Untersuchen und vom
Erkennen, Leipzig, S.Hirzel, 1880b.
3.48 Lukasiewicz, J. Aristotle’s Syllogistic (From the Standpoint of Modern
Formal Logic), Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1958b.
3.49 Moore, G.E. Eine Verteidigung der Common Sense (Fünf Aufsätze aus den
Jahren 1903–1941), Frankfurt/M, Suhrkamp, 1969.
3.50 Patzig. G. Die Aristotelische Syllogistik. (Logisch-philosophische
Untersuchungen über das Buch A der ‘Ersten Analytiken’.
Göttingen, Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1969c
3.51 Putnam, H. Renewing Philosophy, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard
University Press, 1992.
3.52 Quine W.V.O. From a Logical Point of View, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard
University Press, 1961.
3.53 Sluga, H. Gottlob Frege, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980.
3.54 ——‘Frege: the Early Years’, in R.Rorty, J.Scheewind and Q.Skinner
(eds) Philosophy in History. Essays on the Historiography of Philosophy,
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984, pp. 329–56.
3.55 Staudt, C.V. Beiträge zur Geometrie der Lage. Erstes Hef, Nürnberg, F.
Korn, 1856.
3.56 Stekeler-Weithofer, P. Grundprobleme der Logik, Berlin, Walter de
Gruyter, 1986.
3.57 Van Heijenoort, J. (ed.) From Frege to Gödel: A Source book in
Mathematical Logic 1879–1931, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard
University Press, 1967.
3.58 Wittgenstein, L. Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, London, Routledge and
Kegan Paul, 1922.
3.59 Wittgenstein, L. Philosophical Investigations, Oxford, Basil Blackwell,
1953.
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CHAPTER 4
Wittgenstein’s Tractatus
James Bogen
I INTRODUCTION
Containing material (mainly on logic and language) dating back at least to
1913 when Wittgenstein was twenty-four, the Tractatus was first published
in 1921. In 1922 a somewhat revised version was published with a
translation by C.K.Ogden and an introduction by Bertrand Russell. The
last significant correction to the German text was made in 1933. The
second major English translation (by Pears and McGuinness) was
published in 1960.1 It is a short, oracular book. Much of it is aphoristic;
some of it, formidably technical. Few of its claims are explained or argued
in any detail. Its core is a theory of language which Wittgenstein applies to
topics as diverse as ethics, religion, the foundations of logic and the
philosophy of science.
The major components of the Tractatus theory of language are: (T1) a
theory of meaning and truth for elementary propositions (Elementarsätze)
(T4.03, 4.0311; 4.2I–4.24).2
(T2) a construction thesis, which holds roughly that because all
meaningful statements are truth functions of elementary propositions, if
we were given all of the elementary propositions, there is no proposition
(Satz) which could not (in principle at least) be ‘constructed’ or ‘derived
from’ them (T4.26–5.01; 5.234–5.45; 5.5–5.502; 6–6.01); and (T3) a
development of the idea that propositions can express every possible fact.
All of this applies only to language as used to say what is true or false.
The Tractatus does not deal with questions or commands, jokes, riddles,
etc—a limitation emphasized in the early sections of Philosophical
Investigations [4.47].
All three of these involve problematic notions which Wittgenstein
criticized harshly in his later work. For example, elementary propositions
are supposed to be composed of names which refer to objects, but the
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Tractatus supplies no examples of names, and its characterization of
objects is fraught with difficulties (see Section XI below). There are neither
examples nor clear characterizations of the propositions of T1 and
constructions of T2. Indeed, the very notion of a Tractarian proposition is
problematical (see Section IX below). To get started, I will use a simple,
idealized model which departs from the Tractatus as needed to postpone
consideration of the difficulties.
II ELEMENTARY PROPOSITIONS
The model features language which describes ‘states of affairs’. Tractarian
states of affairs (Sachverhalte) are possible concatenations of simple
elements. A state of affairs obtains (besteht) if the relevant objects are
concatenated in the right way; otherwise, it does not obtain (2–2.01). For
now pretend that states of affairs are arrangements of two-dimensional
objects with the following shapes.
Figure 4.1
Any B-shaped object can connect at either end to any A. Objects of the
same shape cannot connect to each other. No object can curve around to
connect to itself or to both ends of another object.
Names are signs which refer to objects. Elementary propositions are
strings of names (cp. T4.21, 4.22, 4.221). Figure 4.2 assigns names (‘a1’, ‘b1’,
etc.) to objects and illustrates three states of affairs (possible
concatenations).
Figure 4.2
The syntax of a Tractarian language allows as elementary propositions all
but only arrangements of names which are isomorphic to possible
concatenations of the objects they refer to. In our model the isomorphism
is spatial: for example, what we get by writing ‘a1’ to the left of ‘b1’ is an
elementary proposition because object a1 can be connected to the left side
of object b1.‘a1a2’, and ‘a1a1’ and ‘b1a2b1’ are not elementary propositions.
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Neither is a single name; the model does not talk about objects apart from
concatenations. Thus, the syntax of elementary propositions mirrors the
geometry of the states of affairs.
Each elementary proposition pictures the isomorphic concatenation of
the objects it mentions. Thus ‘a1b1’ pictures
An elementary proposition is true just in case the objects it mentions
are concatenated as it pictures them; otherwise it is false (cp. T2.21,
4.022, 4.25). An elementary proposition has a sense just in case it
portrays a state of affairs (i.e. a concatenation which can obtain). Thus,
the relation between the geometries of elementary propositions and
states of affairs established by the syntax of our model guarantees a
state of affairs (hence a sense) for every elementary proposition and an
elementary proposition for every state of affairs. This corresponds to
the Tractarian doctrine that elementary propositions cannot portray
anything which is impossible, and can portray all possible
concatenations of objects because the constraints which determine
how symbols can be combined into elementary propositions are
identical to the constraints which determine how objects can combine
with one another (T2.151, less 2.17–2.182).
I emphasize that this model is non-Tractarian. Its names and
propositions are marks (signs) while Tractarian names and propositions
are not (see Sections IV and IX below). Two dimensional spatial objects are
not Tractarian simple objects (see Section XI below). Bearing this in mind
the foregoing illustrates T1—including some crucial features of the
Tractatus picture theory of language (see Section VIII below)—for
elementary propositions.
III T3 AND THE CONSTRUCTION THESIS
The Tractatus says reality is the totality of all ‘positive’ and ‘negative facts’.
Positive facts are obtainings of states of affairs and negative facts are their
non-obtainings (T2.06B). For example if a1 is connected to the left of b1, it is
a positive fact that a1b1. If they are not concatenated it is a negative fact
that they are not.3 Possible worlds are collections of possible facts. The
positive facts a world includes, and its including no others, determine
which negative facts belong to it (T1–1.13; 2.04–2.06).4
To illustrate T2 and T3, let p be ‘a1b1’, the elementary proposition which
pictures the obtaining of state of affairs 1 in Figure 4.2. Let q be ‘b2a2’. Let r
picture the obtaining of 3 in Figure 4.2. If a1, a2, a3, b1, b2 and b3 are the only
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objects, and 1, 2 and 3 are their only possible concatenations, the possible
worlds are:
According to T3 and the construction thesis, every positive and
negative fact in every possible world can be pictured by propositions
included in or constructed from a complete list of elementary
propositions. To show how this could be, the Tractatus employs the truth
table, a gadget which is known and loved by every beginner logic
student.5 In a truth table ‘T’ indicates truth, and ‘F’, falsity. Each
elementary proposition can be true or false independently of the others.
The first three columns of Figure 4.3 represent the possible combinations
of truth values for p, q and r. (The ordering of the permutations is
idiosyncratic to Wittgenstein. (T4.31 ff). Thus in line 1, columns 1, 2, 3,
represent the possibility that all of our elementary propositions are true.
In line 2, columns 1, 2, 3, p is false while q and r are true. Etc. Each
subsequent column represents the truth conditions of non-elementary
propositions. Thus ¬ p is true whenever p is false, and false whenever p is
true, regardless of the truth values of q and r, p&q is true whenever both p
and q are true, regardless of whether r is true, etc.
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WITTGENSTEIN’S TRACTATUS
Figure 4.3
Each row corresponds to a different possible world. If p is ‘a1 b1’, q is
‘b2a2’ and r is ‘a3b3’ row 1, represents w 1 in which p, q and r are all true,
row 2 corresponds to W2, etc. For each different proposition there is a
column which specifies its truth value in each world. Thus, by column 10,
is true in w1, w2, w4, w5, w6, w8, and false in w3 and w7. A
proposition is contingent if it is true in at least one world and false in at
least one other. Necessarily true propositions (‘tautologies’) are true in
every world. Necessarily false propositions (‘contradictions’) are false in
all worlds (T4.46). Because objects are extra-linguistic entities whose
natures determine which states of affairs (and therefore which possible
facts) there are, the Tractates does not think that all necessity and
impossibility is propositional (T2.014, 2.0141; cp. section XI). But
tautology, contingency and contradiction exhaust its propositional
modalities.
If (as in our model) there were only a limited number of truth
possibilities for elementary propositions, we could prove the construction
thesis by simply writing a truth table with a column for every possible
proposition. Wittgenstein offered no such proof, presumably because he
thought he could not list all of the elementary propositions, and could not
rule out the possibility that there are infinitely many of them (T4.2211,
5.571). Instead, he suggested that every proposition (elementary as well as
non-elementary) can be expressed by one or more applications of an
operation he called joint negation and symbolized ‘N ’ . ξ is a variable
whose values are collections of propositions. The bar indicates that the
order of the propositions is indifferent. The joint negation of any ξ is the
conjunction of the denials of every proposition in ξ (T5.5–5.51). For
example, N(p,q,r)=
(1) ¬p&¬q&¬r,
and N([¬p&¬q&¬r], p, q, r)=
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(2) ¬(¬p&¬q&¬r)&(¬p&¬q&¬r), a contradiction (cp. 5.5–5.51) ξ can be a
one-member collection. For example, we can jointly negate (2) to
obtain a tautology,
(3) ¬[¬(¬P&¬q&¬r)&(¬P&¬q&¬r)].
The first step in the construction of any proposition is the joint denial of all
of the elementary propositions (T5.2521–5.2523, 6–6.6001). Wittgenstein
doesn’t say what comes next, but we could proceed as follows. At each
successive step replace by any proposition or propositions you feel like
choosing from the elementary propositions and whatever non-
elementary propositions have already been constructed. By common
sense we shouldn’t replace with propositions whose joint negation will
duplicate results already obtained, and we should keep trying different
substitutions until we get a proposition for every column.6 Such policies
might enable someone with enough ingenuity to construct all of the truth
functions of a finite number of elementary propositions. But since the
choices for (and therefore the outcomes of joint negation) are not
determined after the first step, Wittgenstein’s construction procedure is
ill-defined.7
In addition to this there is the possibility that there are infinitely many
elementary propositions.8 Wittgenstein mentioned this later as an
insurmountable problem for his account of universal and existential
quantification. [4.24], 279 The Tractatus treats universally quantified
propositions of the form
as if they were conjunctions expressing
agreement with every value of Fx and existentially quantified propositions
as if they were disjunctions which are true just in case at least one value of
Fx is true. Since the values of the function are propositions, they must
themselves be elementary propositions or their truth functions. Suppose
the truth conditions of each value of Fx involved a different elementary
proposition. If there were infinitely many of them, Wittgenstein argued,
they could not be enumerated, and Wittgenstein thought this would rule
out constructing universally and existentially quantified propositions by
treating them as conjunctions and disjunctions.9 Indeed, if there were
infinitely many elementary propositions, the first step in the construction
of any proposition whatever—unquantified or quantified—would have to
begin with the joint denial of a group of propositions whose members could
not be enumerated. Wittgenstein apparently decided the Tractatus could
not be adjusted to allow for this. Why didn’t he consider construction
methods which would not require enumerating all of the elementary
propositions? It is plausible that by this time changes in Wittgenstein’s ideas
about elementary propositions (see section IX below) had not only
complicated the problem, but had also led him to doubt whether it was
worth pursuing.
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If all propositions can be constructed (T4.51, 4.52, 5) we must be able to
construct elementary as well as non-elementary propositions. In effect
that would mean detaching each elementary proposition from the set of
all elementary propositions. How can repeated applications of joint
negation accomplish this? If p, q and r were the only elementary
propositions we could construct a proposition with exactly the same truth
conditions as p as follows.10 Having obtained (1) by jointly negating p, q
and r, select (1) together with all of the elementary propositions to form
the collection [(¬p&¬q&¬r), p, q, r)]. Its joint negation is the contradiction
(2) obtained above. Now the joint negation of (2) and p is the conjunction
of ¬p and a tautology:
(4) 3&¬p. Finally, N(4)=
(5) ¬(3&¬p). This expression is true just in case (3) is false or ¬¬p is
true. Since ¬3 is false in all worlds, (5) is true exactly when ¬¬p is
true. Thus (5) has exactly the same truth conditions as p (column 1,
Figure 4.3). But this is not the only way to express the truth
conditions of p. For example, after the mandatory joint denial of
the elementary propositions we can substitute p for ξ−.11 N(p)=¬ p
and N (¬p)=
(6) ¬¬p
which has the same truth values as p.
IV ‘A PROPOSITION IS A QUEER THING!’12
But in constructing (5) and (6) did we reall y construct p, or just different
propositions with the same truth conditions? I he same truth conditions.
Furthermore, if propositions are sentences, then, contrary to
−
Wittgenstein, the order of the propositions in ξ is not indifferent; N(p, q,
r)=¬p&¬q&¬r, and N(r, q, p)=¬r&¬q&¬p have the same truth conditions
but ‘¬p&¬q&¬r’ and ‘¬r&¬q&¬p’ are different sentences. Apparently,
then, propositions are not sentences. Wittgenstein says that what is
‘essential’ to a proposition is not the shapes of its signs but rather, the
features ‘without which the proposition could not express its sense’
(T3.34B) and which are common to ‘all propositions which can express
the same sense’ (T3.341A). Because the sense of a proposition is its truth
conditions (T2.221, 4.022–4.03, 4.1) propositions with the same truth
conditions must have the same essential features. If propositions whose
essential features are identical, are themselves identical, Wittgenstein
need not worry: p would differ no more from pv2 than Thelonius
wearing a hat would differ from Thelonius bare-headed (cp. T5.513A,
5.141). Thus, differences between sentences used to express the same
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truth conditions need not constitute an objection to the construction
thesis.
But if different sentences (marks and sounds) can be counted as one
and the same proposition, what is a proposition? One thing
Wittgenstein says a proposition is is a written or spoken sign in use (‘in
its projective relation to the world’) to picture the world as including a
particular situation (Sachlage) (T3.11, 3.12). A situation is a congeries of
obtainings and non-obtainings of states of affairs (T2.11). But if
different sentences are used to picture the world as including the same
situations, they have the same truth conditions and therefore, they
must have the same essential features. How can exactly the same
essential features belong to all the different sentences which can be
used to say the same thing? For example, since a proposition must
contain ‘exactly as many distinguishable parts as…the situation which
it presents’ (T4.032A) sentences presenting the same situation must
somehow have the same number of distinguishable parts. This applies
to the ‘propositions of our everyday language’ for Wittgenstein
considered them to be ‘in perfect logical order just as they stand’
(T5.5563A) even though their outward form completely disguises their
logical form (T4.002CD). Thus, all artificial and natural language
sentences which can say the same thing must have the same number of
distinguishable parts when they are so used. The question of what
these parts are and how to count them exemplifies the difficulty of
understanding what propositions are and what they have to do with
sentences.13
Wittgenstein says other things about propositions which seem to
promise help with the counting problem. First, at T3.31 propositions
and their parts are said to be ‘symbols’ or ‘expressions’. And the
symbol (expression) is said to be everything ‘essential to their sense’
which propositions expressing the same sense ‘can have in common’.
Thus, where sentences of different lengths are used to express the same
sense, the number of words in a sentence need not equal the number of
symbols in the relevant proposition. Second, Wittgenstein says
pictures, propositions and sentences are not just words or symbols, but
facts—the facts that their elements stand to one another in certain
relations (T2.141, 2.15, 3.14ff). Thus what pictures or asserts that a
stands in some relation to b is not the complex sign ‘aRb’, but the fact
that ‘a’ stands in a certain relation to ‘b’ (T3.1432). The sign ‘R’ is not
treated as a part of the fact (that ‘a’ and ‘b’ stand to one another in a
certain relation) which says that aRb. This promises some help with
the counting problem, for if the symbol is a fact, the number of
elements it contains need not be the same as the number of words used
make the assertion. But how are the parts of such facts to be counted,
and why is not their number directly determined by the number of
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signs they involve? The third characterization of the proposition
suggested in the Tractatus is relevant to this.
As a group of names arranged to depict the world as including a
concatenation of the objects to which they refer (T4.0311) the elementary
proposition resembles what is supposed to have suggested the picture
theory to Wittgenstein—a model14 composed of toy cars, pedestrians, etc,
representing real automobiles, people, etc., and used to allege that an
accident had occurred in a certain way.15 But it is an important fact about
such representations that one and the same picture or model can be used
to claim that this is how an accident occurred, or that this is how it did not
occur. (It can also be exhibited as a representational sculpture which
makes no claim at all.) Strictly speaking, truth conditions belong to
assertions ordinary pictures can be used to make. By itself, apart from any
such use, the picture has no truth conditions. By the same token if
propositions represented facts in the same way the model represented the
accident, they would have no truth conditions. The reason the proposition
has a sense is that, in addition to picturing, it asserts that the world is as
pictured (T4.022, 4.023E, 4.06). If the proposition is an assertion which can
be made with more than one sentence instead of a sentence used to assert,
the number of its parts would depend upon the number of things done
with signs instead of depending on the number of signs used. For
example, the countable parts of the an elementary proposition would be
references to objects. At T3.3411 ‘the real name of an object is what all
symbols which designate it have in common’. The suggestion is that what
they have in common is their use to refer. Indeed this promises a way to
disregard as inessential not just the number of signs in sentences used to
say the same thing, but any features possessed by some of those sentences
but not others.16
How do the different things the Tractatus says about propositions hang
together? The later Wittgenstein thought they do not. In the Philosophical
Investigations [4.47], he spoke of the tendency to think of the proposition as
‘a pure intermediary between the prepositional signs and the facts. Or
even to try to purify, to sublime, the signs themselves’.17
It is plausible that the Tractarian symbol exemplifies the first tendency.
It is plausible that the conception of a proposition as a sign or a fact
involving signs whose essential features are determined by what it is used
to say exemplifies the second. It is plausible that the picture theory of
language exemplifies both.
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V FALSE ASSERTIONS
The Tractatus attempts to solve a puzzle about falsehood dating back to
Plato’s Theaetetus:
[If]…a man who is judging some one thing is judging something
which is…that means that a man who is judging something which
is not is judging nothing…But a man who is judging nothing is not
judging at all…And so it is not possible to judge what is not, either
about the things which are or just by itself.18
To get the problem of false assertion Wittgenstein addressed, replace
Plato’s talk of judgement and what is judged with talk about assertion
and what people assert. To say that some specific state of affairs or
situation (‘some one thing’) belongs to the actual world a proposition
must tell us which state of affairs or situation its truth value depends on.
Otherwise, for example, state of affairs ab would have no more bearing
on the truth or falsehood of the proposition ‘ab’ than any other
concatenation of a and b or the concatenation of other objects. But a
proposition is false only if what it claims to be the case is not one of the
positive or negative facts which make up the actual world. The problem
of false assertion is the problem of explaining how a proposition can
specify the putative fact it claims is the case (as it must do to have a
sense) if it is false and there is no such fact. For example, how can a
proposition say that ab obtains when it is false and the actual world does
not include that concatenation? And if ab obtains, how can ‘¬ab’ specify
the negative fact required for its truth?
The picture theory solves the problem by rejecting the assumption
(which generates it) that a proposition cannot specify which fact its truth
requires unless that fact is actually there to be specified. Elementary
propositions are pictures whose elements are names of simple objects
(T3.203). ‘One name stands for one thing, another for another thing, and
they are combined with one another. In this way the whole group—like a
tableaux vivant—presents a state of affairs’ (T4.0311). Instead of naming
(standing in a referring relation) to a putative fact, a proposition specifies
what its truth requires by ‘picturing’ it, where picturing does not require
the actual existence of the putative fact. In order for an elementary
proposition to say that ab, the names ‘a’ and ‘b’ must refer to objects a and
b, respectively, and those objects must be able to be arranged as the
proposition shows them to be. But this does not require the state of affairs
(ab) to actually obtain. And because the possibility of its obtaining consists
of nothing more than the possession by a and b of the abilities required for
concatenation, the state of affairs (the possible fact that ab obtains) is not
an entity the proposition must refer to in order to claim that ab is the case.
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Thus the proposition ‘ab’ can be false as long as there are objects (capable
of concatenating) for its names to refer to, and an actual world which fails
to include the obtaining of ab.
Complex situations, including non-obtainings of states of affairs,
are pictured by non-elementary propositions whose construction—
Wittgenstein thought—requires nothing more than the joint negation
of collections of propositions. Whatever difficulties this may involve,
there is no reason to think, e.g., that the construction of ‘¬ab’ should
require ab to obtain any more than would the assertion ‘ab’. Thus,
Wittgenstein can say that ‘a proposition which speaks of a complex’
is false rather than ‘meaningless (unsinnig) if the complex does not
exist’ as it would be if complexes had to be named in order to be
mentioned (T3.24B). With regard to the problem at hand, the non-
existing complexes are the putative facts mentioned by false
propositions.
The notion of picturing involved in this solution is a primitive. Instead
of trying to define it Wittgenstein designed his account of elementary
propositions and their truth functions to secure that, as long as there are
objects for names to refer to and an actual world for the proposition to
represent, the proposition can picture the world as including a putative
fact regardless of whether it belongs to the actual world. In order to
appreciate the elegance of this solution to the problem of false assertions
and also to introduce some of its difficulties it helps to look at the
competition.
VI SOME REJECTED ACCOUNTS OF FALSE
JUDGEMENT
Wittgenstein intended his account to avoid problems he found in the
solutions of Frege and Russell, and a theory of Meinong’s they all
rejected. Before he became Wittgenstein’s teacher Russell entertained
and rejected Meinong’s idea that a proposition has meaning by virtue
of doing what amounts, ignoring details, to referring to the fact whose
existence is required for its truth.19 Meinong called these ‘Objectives’.
The Objective signified by a false proposition like ‘Napoleon was
defeated at Marengo’ must enjoy a shadowy grade of existence—
robust enough to give meaning to the proposition, but not robust
enough to make it true. Russell rejected this because he believed
philosophy must be constrained by a ‘Vivid sense of reality’, and was
convinced that ‘there is no such thing as [the fact that] Napoleon was
defeated at Marengo’.20 In addition to dispensing with the Objective,
his treatment of the Theaetetus problem21 was (like Wittgenstein’s)
intended to avoid the ontological commitments of the account Frege
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devised before the turn of the century.22 Let us look at Frege’s before
turning to Russell’s.
In Fregean semantics propositions can have meanings of two sorts—
sense and reference. All propositions have senses. Frege calls the sense
of a proposition a ‘thought’—an unfortunate term because his
‘thoughts’ are structures which are as they are quite independently of
anyone’s psychological states. Their study belongs not to psychology,
but to logic and the philosophy of language. Logical relations (like
entailment) are grounded in structural features which Fregean
thoughts possess regardless of whether anyone grasps them, and
which they would have had even if there had never been any minds.
Frege says the existence and structure of a thought depends no more
upon anyone’s thinking than the existence of a mountain depends
upon anyone’s travelling over it.23
According to Frege not all propositions have truth values.24 Those that
don’t have sense but no reference. A proposition is true if its referent is
an object Frege calls The True, and false if its referent is The False. Which
(if either) a proposition refers to depends upon the thought it expresses
together with how things are. For example, the sense of ‘Bud played
faster than Thelonius’ is such that this proposition refers to The True if
Bud actually did play faster (he did) and to The False if Thelonius
played faster (he did not).25 Which thought a string of words is used to
express depends upon the psychology of those who use it. But once this
is established its truth conditions, i.e. what is required for it to name The
True (and what is required for it to name The False), depend entirely
upon the structure of the thought. The judgement (assertion) that a
proposition is true commits one to its naming The True. If it does, the
judgement (assertion) is true; if not it is false. But whether or not the
proposition is true does not depend upon whether it is judged or
asserted.
This solution is Platonistic. But because it does not posit different
grades of existence it is not Meinongian. Consider the false proposition
‘Thelonius played faster than Bud’. Its referent (The False) and its sense
enjoy exactly the same kind of existence as Thelonius Monk, Bud Powell
and the proposition itself.26 Thus, the price Frege pays to avoid Meinong’s
two grades of existence is Platonism required to posit Fregean thoughts,
The True, and The False.
Wittgenstein rejected the Platonism of Frege’s account, and along with
it, the Fregean idea that propositions are names, let alone names of The
True and The False (T3.143, 4.063, 4.431, 4.442).27 He tells us not to say
propositions have senses—as if a sense were a Fregean thought which
could exist even if no proposition had it, and as if having a sense involved
a two-term ‘having’ relation between a proposition and its sense. Instead
of saying a proposition has a sense we can simply say it pictures the world
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as including the situation it presents (T4.031B). For a proposition to be
true is not for it to name The True but rather, to picture the world as
containing a situation it actually contains. Russell’s alternative to Frege
and Meinong was to maintain that truth and falsity belong primarily to
complex structures assembled by a person in the course of believing,
disbelieving, doubting, understanding, questioning, or any of the other
mental states which Russell later called ‘attitudes to ideas’ and which are
now called ‘prepositional attitudes’.28 In what follows I will use the term
‘judgement’ generically for all of these attitudes. A Russellian judgement
is not a mind’s attitude toward a pre-existing, pre-structured Fregean
thought. Russell eschewed these as well as Meinongian Objectives.
Instead, he treats judgement as consisting of a many-termed relation
between the judging mind and a number of (what he considered less
exotic) items. In judging that one of these items, a, stands in some relation,
R, to another item, b, one puts together what Russell calls a proposition.
Unlike Fregean propositions whose constituents were words, and
Wittgensteinian propositions composed of symbols, a Russellian
proposition is composed in this case of the objects a and b themselves, the
relation, R, and a gadget which orders them into a proposition and
thereby determines its structure.29 These constituents exist on their own
whether or not anyone makes a judgement about them.30 If they actually
are as judged (e.g. if someone believes that a is louder than b, and a
actually is louder) the proposition is true. But since their collection into a
proposition requires nothing more than judgement, false propositions can
be put together in exactly the same way as true propositions. This
treatment of the problem of false judgement does not commit Russell’s
ontology to anything beyond the minds which judge, the relation which
constitutes judging, and the constituents which judgement puts together
to form propositions. Thus, Russell avoided positing the Meinongian
Objectives and Fregean thoughts which offended his ontological
sensibilities by plucking out of his account of judgement the notion of
prefabricated contents of judgement (Objectives, Fregean thoughts)
which do not depend upon judgement for their existence, their logical
structures, or their truth conditions. The development of the picture
theory was driven by Wittgenstein’s dissatisfaction with this no less than
with Frege’s and Meinong’s theories.
In 1913 Wittgenstein argued that Russell’s theory was inadequate
because it could not rule out the possibility of judging nonsense, i.e.
believing, affirming, etc., what lacks truth conditions. The problem was
that Russell’s account does not constrain the items which can belong to
propositions or the ways in which judging can arrange them as needed to
rule out such nonsense judgements as ‘that this table penholders this
book’.31 This defect is hard to remedy. Even if Russell had a principled
way to limit the selection of constituents to items which could belong to a
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fact his theory would not know how to prevent someone from judging a
disorganized jumble.
Well then, how does Wittgenstein avoid the possibility of nonsense
judgements? He says what is needed to avoid Russell’s mistake is a
correct ‘explanation of the form of the proposition, ‘A makes the
judgement p’…[which shows] that it is impossible to judge a nonsense
(einen Unsinn)’ (5.5422). The mistake, says Wittgenstein, was to analyse
‘A believes that p is the case’, ‘A thinks p’, etc.’, as claiming that a
proposition p stands in some relation ‘to an object, A’ (T5.541C-D).32
Properly analysed, ‘A judges p’ and the rest turn out to be…of the form
‘“p” says p’ (5.542). In ‘A judges p’, ‘A’ appears to be a name which
refers to a judging subject. But the only names the Tractarian analysis of
a proposition can include refer to Tractarian objects, and Wittgenstein
believes that judging subjects are not objects (T5.5421). Thus neither ‘A’
nor anything else which purports to name a judging subject can occur in
the analysis of ‘A judges p’. More surprisingly Wittgenstein’s analysis
does not mention judgement either. If ‘“p” says p’ is the proper analysis
of ‘A judges p’ then the situation Russell analysed as including a judging
subject, the judging, and a Russellian proposition consisting of objects
arranged by the judging reduces to a situation consisting just of a
picture, sentence, or proposition, ‘p’, and its expression of its sense, ‘p’
says that it is the case that p because its elements are ‘correlated with’ the
elements of the putative fact that p (T5.5421). Thus, where Russell
purged his ontology of Meinongian Objectives and Fregean senses by
reducing the content of a prepositional attitude to a collection of objects
assembled by judging, Wittgenstein reduced judging (believing, and all
other sorts of thinking) to a proposition’s (picture’s, or sentence’s)
expression of a sense.33 Instead of analysing someone’s judgement that
ab as a relation between a judging subject (mind, soul, etc.) and objects a
and b, Wittgenstein analyses the judgement as consisting essentially of a
Tractarian picture (proposition or sentence) which depicts a and b as
concatenated.34 This reduction of judgement to the expression of a sense
transforms the problem of explaining why there can be no nonsense
judgements into the problem of explaining why propositions cannot
assert nonsense on the order of ‘the table penholders the book’.35
Because Tractarian names can only combine to form elementary
propositions which picture possible concatenations of their referents
(T2.16–2.17, 2.18–2.203)36 elementary propositions cannot lack senses.
Since all non-elementary propositions are truth functions of elementary
propositions, no proposition can be nonsensical. If judgement can be
analysed as the Tractatus proposes, this rules out the possibility of
nonsense judgements.
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VII UNASSERTED PROPOSITIONS
The question of how there can be false propositions has a counterpart
in the question of how there can be judgements about and logical
relations between propositions which are not themselves judged. How
can I believe that (p) Theophrastus wrote the book we know as
Aristotle’s Politics only if (q) Theophrastus held inexcusably stupid
political views, even though I disbelieve p and have no opinion about
q? How can it be the case that every conjunction entails its conjuncts
regardless of whether anyone ever has or will ever even grasp the
sense of a given conjunction, its conjuncts or the claim that the one
entails the others?
Frege’s theory allows for all of this by treating the sense of a
proposition as a structure whose composition does not require
judgement. Thus I do not have to believe that Theophrastus wrote the
Politics in order for the sense of p to be such that p is true only if he did.
The same holds for q. I happen to believe the hypothetical but my doing
so is not what gives it the truth conditions it has. And if logical relations
depend upon senses whose existence and structure are quite
independent of judgement, no judgement is required for the entailment
of p by p&q.37
Hypotheticals and entailments raise problems for non-Fregean
accounts which provide no contents to judge apart from someone’s
judging them. One such account is Kant’s theory that the antecedents
and consequents of hypothetical judgement are themselves judgements,
rather than pre-existing contents.38 Because the contents of Russell’s
judgements are creatures of the judging mind, it is astonishing to find
the multiple-relation theory of judgement in Principia Mathematica
whose very programme assumes that logical relations are not
psychological and that their explanation requires no reference to the
judging mind.39
By reducing judgements to the expressions by propositions of their
senses, the Tractatus turns our questions about hypotheticals and logical
connections into questions about unasserted propositions. For example,
the question of how I can believe a conditional without believing its
antecedent and its consequent becomes a question about how a
conditional proposition can fail to assert its antecedent and its
consequent. Since Wittgenstein holds that ‘… propositions occur in other
propositions only as bases of truth operations’ (T5.54)—i.e. as members of
jointly denied collections of propositions (T5.21)—he need not worry, e.g.,
about how propositions p and q can occur unasserted in p⊃q; his answer
is that they do not. But the construction of any proposition requires the
joint negation of the elementary propositions. Therefore just as Kant
needs to explain how we can judge that a hypothetical is true without
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judging the truth of its component judgements, Wittgenstein must
interpret an expression like ‘N(p,q,…) as including p and q without
including the assertion that it is the case that p (or that q).
Tractarian operations take us from propositions to propositions (T5.21–
5.23). Even though we can express a negative proposition without using
the sign for the proposition it denies, the negative proposition must still be
constructed ‘indirectly’ from the positive proposition (T5.5151). Thus, in
order to say that state of affairs ab does not obtain, we must use the
proposition ‘ab’ (in joint negation, I suppose) not just the sentence (sign)
customarily used to say that ab obtains. But elementary propositions do
not just show states of affairs; they also say that they obtain (T4.022,
4.023E, 4.06). The Tractatus does not address the question of how to use the
proposition ‘ab’ to construct ‘¬ab’ without asserting what we wanted to
deny—that ab is the case.
Since we can write down a sentence without asserting anything,
things would be easier if Wittgenstein had treated joint denial as taking
us from sentences to sentences instead of propositions to propositions.
But he does not, and it is not clear how he could have. The joint denial of
p and q has no definite truth conditions unless p and q each have
definite truth conditions (T5.2314). For Frege, propositions were
sentences which could have truth conditions without benefit of
assertion just by virtue of their assignment to Fregean thoughts. But
Wittgenstein rejected Frege’s account of the senses of propositions and
treated sentences as having senses only as used to assert.40 It seems to
follow that if the ‘p’ and the ‘q’ in ‘N(p, q)’ are sentences, then ‘N(p, q)’
has no definite truth conditions unless ‘p’ and ‘q’ are used to assert
something. It would be nice if a sentence could have the obtaining of ab
as its truth condition just in virtue of its employment in the construction
of the proposition which says that ab does not obtain. But the Tractatus
does not set out a mechanism for this.
In the 1913 theory of knowledge manuscript which Wittgenstein
criticized, Russell himself said the ‘chief demerit’ of his theory of
judgement was that it could not explain logical relations among unjudged
propositions.41 But Wittgenstein’s objections centred on the problem of
nonsense judgements. I find no record of objections based on the question
of logical relations between unjudged propositions. This is surprising, for
Wittgenstein certainly knew the relevant parts of Frege’s work. No less
surprisingly, the Tractatus does not indicate how to avoid the analogous
problem of how logical relations can obtain between unasserted
propositions.
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VIII LOGIC, PROBABILITY, AND THE
CONSTRUCTION THESIS
In spite of this difficulty, the construction thesis provided an interesting
and influential treatment of logical and probabilistic relations between
propositions. By the construction thesis, the truth value of every
proposition is determined by the truth values of elementary propositions,
and elementary propositions are truth functions of themselves (T5).
Wittgenstein calls each combination of truth values of elementary
propositions sufficient for the truth of a proposition a truth ground of that
proposition (T5.1241C, 5.01). Thus, for elementary propositions p, q, r1,
r2,…rn, the truth grounds of p&q are ͗true p, true q, true r1͘, ͗true p, true q,
false r1͘, ͗true p, true q, true r2͘, ͗true p, true q, false r2͘, and so on for every
ri. Since the truth values of the rs are irrelevant to the truth value of the
conjunction we can write ‘͗true p, true q͘’ as an abbreviation for the full
list of its truth grounds. The truth grounds of are ͗true q, true p͘, ͗true
q, false͘ and ͗false q and false p͘. And so on.
Wittgenstein explains deductive inference as resting on nothing more
than relations between truth grounds (T5.12). For example, since the truth
ground of p&q, includes ͗true p͘ , p is true in every possible world in
which p&q is true. This explains why p&q entails p, and accounts for the
validity of the argument: p&q; therefore p. On the other hand, because p is
made true by ͗true p, false q͘ as well as by (true p, true q), p&q is false in
some worlds in which p is true. That is why p does not entail p&q and we
cannot infer the latter from the former. ¬p entails
because both its
truth grounds (͗false p, true q) and (false p, false q͘) are truth grounds of
. One proposition contradicts another just in case their truth grounds
exclude one another.
Russell called this, ‘an amazing simplification of the theory of
inference, as well as a definition of the sort of propositions that belong to
logic’. ([4.33], xvi). The simplification consists of the fact that if
Wittgenstein is right there is no need for laws of logic as traditionally
conceived. Russell’s idea that ‘(p or p) implies p’ is analogous to such
‘…particular enunciations in Euclid’ as ‘…let ABC be an Isosceles triangle;
then the angles at the base will be equal’ is an example of the traditional
view.42 According to this the inference of the disjunction ‘John Carter
played the clarinet’ from the disjunction ‘John Carter played the clarinet
or John Carter played the clarinet’ is justified by its falling under the law
‘(pvp)ٛp’ in the same way that the claim that the angles at the base of a
particular isosceles triangle are equal is justified by its being an instance of
the Euclidean principle. Without such maximally general truths (axioms
and their consequences) it would be impossible to explain entailment or
inference. But if Wittgenstein is right and logical relations are nothing
more than relations between truth grounds, what justifies the inference of
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one proposition from another is the propositions themselves and ‘“laws of
inference”…supposed to justify inference…[by]…Frege and
Russell…[are]…superfluous’ (T5.132). The connections between truth
grounds which constitute logical relationships between propositions can
be established and exhibited by constructing them from the elementary
propositions. And this would suffice to establish whether one entails or
contradicts the other. And given a logically perspicuous notation,
propositions could be written down in a form which clearly exhibits
relations between their truth grounds (T5.1311). Finally, the propositions
(like ‘(pvp)—| p’ and modus ponens) which Russell called laws of logic turn
out on Wittgenstein’s view to be nothing more than tautologies (T6.1 13ff.)
whose truth can therefore be fully explained by construction.
Wittgenstein applies the same strategy to the explanation of
probabilistic relations between propositions.
If Tr is the number of the truth grounds of a proposition ‘r’, and if
Trs is the number of the truth grounds of a proposition ‘s’ that are at
the same time truth grounds of ‘r’, then…the ratio Trs: Tr is the
degree of probability that the proposition ‘r’ gives to the proposition
‘s’ (T5.15).
For example, by rows 1, 2, 5 in Figure 4.3, three of the four truth grounds
of r are also truth grounds of
, and its probability given r
is . By rows 1, 3, (p&q) is probabilistically independent of r: (p&q)
shares half of the truth grounds of r. The fact that the probability of q
given p is 1 if p entails q, and 0 if p contradicts q is similarly explained,
as is the fact that conditional on any consistent proposition, the
probability of a tautology is 1 and the probability of a contradiction, 0
(cp. T5.152 C, D).43
Elementary propositions are probabilistically independent because the
truth value of each one depends on the obtaining of a different state of
affairs. ‘States of affairs are independent of one another’; the obtaining or
non-obtaining of any given state of affairs has no influence whatever on
the obtaining or non-obtaining of any other (T2.061, 2.062). If r and s are
elementary propositions, their respective truth grounds will be {͗true r,
true s͘, ͗true r, false s͘} and {͗true s, true r͘, ͗true s, false r͘} (ignoring
irrelevant propositions), r and s share just one truth ground so Trs=1. Since
r has two truth grounds, Tr=2, and the probability of r conditional on
s=Trs/Tr=1/2 (T5.252).
This makes all probability conditional and construes conditional
probability as a logical relation determined by the truth grounds of the
relevant propositions. Since truth grounds are completely determined
by meanings, Wittgenstein’s account makes probability assignments a
priori and analytic. Tractarian probability is objective as well. The
probability you assign to a proposition will depend upon what you take
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the relevant truth grounds to be. But there is an objective fact of the
matter as to what the relevant truth grounds actually are, and that
makes real probabilities objective and independent of subjectively
influenced assignments.44
This sort of approach dates back to Jacques Bournoulli (1713) and
Laplace (1812). It was revived by Keynes in 1921. As discussed by the
Vienna Circle from 1927 on, and modified by Waisman, Wittgenstein’s
version gained its influence by attracting Carnap’s interest.45 Its
importance turns in part on Wittgenstein’s second thoughts about the
independence of elementary propositions. By 1929 his thinking about ‘the
logical analysis of actual phenomena’ persuaded him that in order to
explain, e.g., why the same colour cannot have different hues or degrees
of brightness at the same time, he must suppose that numbers can occur in
elementary propositions.46 This would make some elementary
propositions mutually incompatible. But if one elementary proposition
can confer a probability of 0 on another, it is natural to ask whether
elementary propositions can entail one another,47 and more to the point, to
consider the possibility of conditional probabilities among elementary
propositions ranging all the way from 0 to 1. These possibilities became
essential to Carnap’s thought, and thus to the development of the logical
treatment of probability in this century.
Despite a number of attractive features (including its conformity to
standard conditions on a probability calculus)48 the Tractatus story has two
remarkable drawbacks. First, it is silent about what empirically observed
frequencies could have to do with probability estimates. This renders it
incapable of application to statistical reasoning from sample populations
and to learning from experience. Second, if probabilistic relations between
natural language propositions (including those of the sciences) depend
upon relations between their truth grounds, the assignment of
probabilities to them is impossible unless they can be analyzed to
determine which elementary propositions and states of affairs are
involved in their truth conditions. As will be seen below, the Tractatus
discussion of objects and names, states of affairs and elementary
propositions does not indicate what such an analysis would involve, how,
or even whether it could be accomplished.49
XI TRACTARIAN PHILOSOPHY OF
SCIENCE
If states of affairs are mutually independent there are no causal
connections (deterministic or stochastic) between them (T5.135–5.1361,
6.37). If elementary propositions are mutually independent, they cannot
influence each other’s probabilities any more than they can entail or
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logically exclude one another. Thus, the Tractatus is no place to be a realist
concerning laws of nature.
But although states of affairs are independent of one another,
complex situations—patterns of obtainings and non-obtainings of states
of affairs—are not. If they were, non-elementary propositions would be
as logically and probabilistically irrelevant to one another as elementary
propositions. By allowing non-trivial, logical and probabilistic
connections between truth functions, Wittgenstein leaves open the
possibility, e.g., that universal gravitation might be a law of nature
which embodies probabilistic and logical connections between non-
elementary propositions and objective dependencies among complex
situations.
Instead of denying this possibility, Wittgenstein says the belief that ‘the
so-called laws of nature’ explain natural phenomena is an illusion
(Täuschung) (T6.371). This is because he thinks ‘the so called laws of
nature’ (a mixed lot including ‘laws of conservation’ (T6.33), the ‘law of
least action’ (T6.3211), ‘the principle of sufficient reason’ and ‘laws of
continuity in nature’ (T6.34), as well as the laws of Newtonian mechanics
(T6.341A, 6.342B) and other such theories) are creatures of convention.
Here is why.
If states of affairs are mutually independent, scientifically interesting
deterministic and stochastic dependencies can hold only between
complex situations. But complex situations are collections assembled by
linguistic practice from a fixed stock of possibilities for obtainings and
non-obtainings of individual states of affairs. In the absence of natural
connections between the obtainings and non-obtainings of any states of
affairs, the only connection the Tractatus allows, e.g., between ab and cd,
would be constituted by linguistic conventions. Different natural and
artificial languages need not allow for the expression of all or of the
same truth functions of elementary propositions. Thus, one language
might enable its speakers to say things whose truth values depend on
the joint obtaining of ab and cd while another language does not.
Wittgenstein thinks of scientific theories as embodying conventions for
describing the world. These conventions determine how states of affairs
will be collected and thus what complex situations the science will treat.
Thus Newtonian ‘mechanics determines one form of description of the
world by saying that all propositions used in… [its] description must be
obtained in a given way from…the axioms of mechanics’ (T6.341A).
Wittgenstein illustrates this by analogy to a procedure for describing a
surface covered with an irregular pattern of black spots by laying a
square-meshed net over it and saying for each square whether it is black
or white. The coarseness of the net will influence the accuracy of the
descriptions, but in different ways for differently shaped meshes. But
even so we can allow for this by adjusting the degree of coarseness to the
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shape of the mesh, and equally accurate descriptions can be obtained
through the use of at least some different nets. Thus, even if some
meshes would not permit accurate enough descriptions for our
purposes, the pattern of spots does not uniquely favour any one net. By
analogy the world is nothing more than the obtainings and non-
obtainings of situations which do not uniquely favour the descriptive
conventions of any particular scientific language. The laws of
Newtonian mechanics do not explain the obtainings or non-obtainings
of any of the states of affairs of which any world is composed. Instead,
they constrain their organization into complex situations by requiring,
e.g., that we describe motions in terms of mass, force and acceleration—
all of which involve convention-driven groupings of naturally
independent states of affairs.
So much for Newtonian laws of motion. Laws like the principle of
sufficient reason do not explain anything either; they are higher-level
constraints on description (T6.35B).50 We can learn something about the
world from the fact that it ‘can be described more simply with one system
of mechanics than with another’ and by ‘the precise way in which it is
possible to describe it’ by Newtonian mechanics (T6.342B).51 That is
because obtainings and non-obtainings of states of affairs which do not
depend upon linguistic conventions constrain the scientist’s ability to
construct and use theories and the results their use can bring. But all the
same ‘the possibility of describing the world by means of Newtonian
mechanics tells us nothing about the world’ (T6.342B). The possibility of
describing the spotted surface did not require the shapes or spatial
arrangements of the spots to resemble the shapes or arrangements of the
mesh of the net chosen to describe them. By analogy, if states of affairs are
mutually independent and if theory and theory choice are conventional as
Wittgenstein thinks they are, the possibility of Newtonian descriptions
does not require states of affairs to fit any more naturally into Newtonian
groupings than into complex situations resulting from the groupings of
any other theory.
The idea that regimenting and organizing descriptions of phenomena
is the real function of the explanatory principles of physics is a venerable
one held by philosophers who understood and respected the sciences no
less than Duhem did. But motivated as it was by Wittgenstein’s
conventionalism and his views on mysticism (see Section XII below),
Tractarian philosophy of science contains the seeds of what became an
increasingly unsympathetic attitude towards the natural and
behavioural sciences. The ‘whole modern conception of the world’, said
Wittgenstein, ‘is founded on the illusion…that the so-called laws of
nature’ and by extension, the sciences which invoke them ‘explain
natural phenomena’ (T6.371–6.372). People who hold this conception
treat the laws of nature ‘as something inviolable, just as God and Fate
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were treated in past ages’. Wittgenstein preferred the ‘view of the
ancients’ for its acknowledgement of the inexplicability of God and Fate
over ‘the modern system…[which] tries to make it look as if everything
were explained’ (T6.372). Time brought no rosiness to Wittgenstein’s
opinion of ‘the modern system’. According to the later works, science is
grounded just as much in ‘forms of life’ and social practices as any other
activity involving language use. And it is no better justified by such
grounding. This picture, along with Wittgenstein’s distaste for the
arrogance he attributed to science descends directly from the philosophy
of the Tractatus.52
X TROUBLES WITH OBJECTS
Unlike the two-dimensional objects in my simplification (see Section II
above), the objects Tractarian names refer to are ‘simple’ and
‘indivisible’ (T2.02), unalterable and unchanging, and eternal (T2.022,
2.024–2.0271). Sense data, ideas, sensations, direct experiences and other
such mental items posited by psychologists and philosophers lack these
virtues. According to the theories which appeal to them they are all
evanescent, most of them are complex, and some are changeable. This
marks a crucial difference between the Tractatus and a good deal of the
empiricist philosophy commonly associated with it. G.E.Moore,
Bertrand Russell, members of the Vienna Circle and others Wittgenstein
encountered both before and after the Tractatus, held that the analysis of
ordinary and scientific language terminates in perceivable objects which
belong to the foundations of empirical knowledge. For Russell these
were sense data. He believed that only statements whose fully analyzed
versions mention sense data can be empirically tested. And he believed
we could not understand our own utterances unless they made
reference to such objects of direct acquaintance. In contrast to all of this
and to Wittgenstein’s later work as well, the Tractatus is not greatly
concerned with epistemology.53 Tractarian objects belong to an
ontological theory about the ultimate composition of the world rather
than an epistemological theory about our knowledge of it. Tractarian
objects are the ultimate components of the facts we form beliefs about
rather than the evidence we use to justify empirical beliefs. And even
though they are the ultimate objects of reference according to Tractarian
semantics, the Tractatus does little or nothing in the way of appealing to
objects to explain how languages are actually learned and utterances
understood.54 Wittgenstein’s later remark concerning Socrates’ dream of
analysing complexes into simple components that ‘[e]xperience
certainly does not show us these elements’ is quite faithful to the objects
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of the Tractatus, and was probably meant to apply to them [4.47], 59;
[4.25], 202 A-C).
Things were not always so. Wittgenstein’s pre-Tractatus, notebooks
sometimes suggest that ‘patches in our visual field’ might be the
referents of genuine names.55 Wittgenstein’s conversations with Schlick
and Waisman, after his return to Vienna clearly suggest an
epistemological development of Tractarian ideas. Around 1930
Waismann wrote ‘Theses’, an epistemologically oriented adaptation of
the Tractatus which appears to have had Wittgenstein’s (temporary)
blessing.56 But the notebooks also consider the possibility of objects as
non-Russellian as watches and mass points.57 The Tractatus is remarkable
for its lack of any such suggestions. In spite of Wittgenstein’s willingness
to speculate elsewhere about what objects might be, the Tractatus leaves
this as an exercise to the student. It is plausible that this is because
Wittgenstein had hit upon an approach to semantics which required
objects without providing any guide whatever to what they might be.58
It is also plausible that the Tractatus is not driven by interests which
required Wittgenstein to continue his pre-Tractarian speculations about
what the objects are (see Section XII below).
Because states of affairs are just concatenations of objects, we cannot
know what the states of affairs are unless we know what the objects are.
But if we do not know what objects there are, we cannot know the
meanings of simple names. But then we cannot understand elementary
propositions either, for an elementary proposition is an arrangement of
names whose sense is a function of their meanings. Furthermore,
although the Tractatus speaks of knowing ‘on purely logical grounds’
that there must be elementary propositions (T5.5562), it says it is
impossible to determine a priori what the elementary propositions are
(T5.5571) or what their forms might be (i.e. how many different names
they can contain, and in what arrangements) (T5.5541–5.555). Instead,
‘…the application of logic decides what elementary propositions there
are’ (T5.557). I suppose this means the only way to discover the
elementary propositions would be to try analysing non-elementary
propositions (cp. T4.221A). You might start with a list of arbitrarily
chosen candidates for elementary propositions and try to express the
truth conditions, for example, of colour claims, by joint negation,
modifying the original list of putative elementary propositions as
needed to obtain the required results. If that worked you could repeat
the process, adjusting the list as needed to construct other propositions,
and so on.
Be that as it may, no such project is undertaken in the Tractatus, and the
Tractatus does not provide the materials for any of the reductions or
analyses the construction thesis might lead us to expect (including, e.g.,
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the application of its treatment of logic and probability to natural
language claims (see Section IX above)).
A survey of the kinds of features Tractarian objects are supposed to
have raises questions about whether one object (hence one state of affairs)
can be discriminated from another. If they cannot be discriminated, it is
hard to be optimistic about the prospects for undertaking the
constructions the Tractatus neglects. The features of Tractarian objects are
of three kinds.
1 Each object has trans-world, ‘internal features’ constituted by its
ability to concatenate with one or more other objects (and its inability
to concatenate with still others). Thus, the internal features of objects
determine which states of affairs they can belong to (T2.0123B). The
natures of all of the objects taken together determine what worlds are
possible; possible worlds differ from one another just in virtue of the
concatenations of objects they contain and fail to contain. Although
configurations of objects change from world to world, the internal
features of an object remain constant over all possible worlds
including even worlds in which no situation to which it can belong
obtains.
2 Wittgenstein mentions ‘external’ properties (T2.01231, 2.9233,
4.023). He doesn’t say much about what they are, but we can guess.
Since an object’s internal properties are features it has in all worlds
(T4.123), its external features should be properties it has in the actual
world but lacks in some other worlds. What would these be?
Because no elementary proposition is true in every world, no
concatenation to which an object can belong obtains in all worlds.
Thus the external features of an object should consist of its
belonging to whatever concatenations it actually belongs to along
with the non-obtaining of other states of affairs to which it can
belong. Perhaps there are other sorts of external features, but
Wittgenstein does not mention them.59
3 The Tractatus needs to ascribe features of another sort to objects in
order to allow for colours and other properties which Wittgenstein
calls ‘material’ (T2.0231). Since it is impossible for ‘two colors to
occupy the same place in the visual field’ or for a particle to have two
different velocities or spatial positions at the same time (T6.3571)
being red and being blue (being here and being there, having this
velocity and that velocity) exclude one another and therefore cannot
all be states of affairs. It is plausible that according to the Tractatus
none of them are. Colour, velocity and position are material
properties and it is ‘only by the configuration of objects
that…[material properties]…are constructed (gebildet’) (T2.0231).
Thus, the fact that my Dodger cap is Dodger blue should reduce to
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complex situations made possible by the natures (concatenation
abilities) of the objects they involve. The natures of the relevant
objects must also rule out complex situations which would give my
cap different colours (or give its colour different degrees of
brightness) all over at the same time. This is an example of how
‘empirical reality is limited by the totality of objects’ (T5.5561A). I will
call the features of objects which make possible and constrain the
material properties of familiar things ‘material capacities’.60 These are,
or should reduce to internal features of objects.
In the next section, I suggest that objects with no features but these cannot
be discriminated one from another as required to understand their
names.61 If so, it will be impossible to interpret sentences used to picture
states of affairs or complex situations. Because states of affairs are simply
concatenations of objects, it will also be impossible (for theoreticians as
well as speakers) to discriminate between states of affairs which constitute
the truth grounds of different propositions. The meaning of a Tractarian
name is exhausted by its reference to an object (T3.203) and elementary
propositions are nothing more than names arranged to picture states of
affairs which are nothing more than arrangements of the bearers of the
names. Thus, it looks as though we will not be able to determine the truth
conditions of elementary propositions. That makes it hard to see how we
could construct (or interpret constructions of) their non-tautologous,
logically consistent truth functions—including the truth functions
expressed in technical and everyday natural languages. Over and above
the fact that no construction is actually undertaken in the Tractatus, this
makes it look as though the construction of any informal or technical
natural language proposition would require considerable adjustments in
its theory of objects.
XI TRACTARIAN ANTI-DISCRIMINATION
A first thing to say about this is that while Tractarian objects neither are
nor possess material properties, these are the only features which our
senses and instruments of observation and measurement are capable of
registering or recording (at least in any form that we can recognize). Thus,
there is no reason to think that our senses or our equipment can observe
perceive, photograph or otherwise register or record any particular object
or its features. If we have any empirical access to objects, it must be by
way of the analysis of whatever states of affairs or situations we (and our
equipment) can observe and record.62
The next thing to notice is that objects cannot be discriminated
unless they have different features (T2.02331) and all features of
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objects are external or internal (including material capacities). But
even if we could pick out an object by way of its external features, they
would not suffice for its re-identification. Setting aside the fact that our
senses and our equipment are not attuned to objects suppose we could
somehow examine single states of affairs and give the name ‘a’ to the
object we find presently concatenated with another object, to which we
give the name ‘b’. This gives us one external feature of a and b—the
fact that they are concatenated. But that will not enable us to recognize
a in any other state of affairs. And even if it did, we would not be able
to tell whether or not any other object concatenated with a in any other
state of affairs (in this or any other world) is the object we originally
called b. (Since we do not know any internal properties we have no
reason to think a and b cannot belong to other states of affairs, and no
idea of which ones they can belong to.) The fact that b was
concatenated with a will not allow us to discriminate b from any other
object concatenated with a in any other state of affairs. Thus,
Wittgenstein seems to be quite right to say we cannot know an object
unless we know its internal properties (T2.01231).
How could we detect the internal features of an object? If a and b are
concatenated we know that they can concatenate with one another; that’s
one internal feature. But to find out what other internal features they
have, we must find out what other objects they can or cannot concatenate
with. Suppose we knew somehow that ac does not obtain, where c is yet
another object, ac might fail to obtain because the concatenation is
impossible. (That would be an internal feature of a and c.) But its non-
obtaining could be just a contingent fact (external feature). To decide
between these possibilities, we would have to find out whether ac obtains
in any non-actual world. But there is no way to find that out unless the
objects have marks which enable us to identify them across worlds.
External features are limited to properties objects have in the actual world,
and so they cannot serve this purpose. Internal features (including
material capacities) would do the job, but they cannot be detected without
marks by which objects can be identified across worlds. If we cannot
detect the internal features which distinguish a from b, we will not be able
to discriminate state of affairs ab from ba, or be, where c is any other object
you please.
If (as seems impossible) we had some way to assign names (i.e. signs
to be used as names) to objects belonging to actual facts, we might try to
avoid trans-world identity questions by stipulation. For example, in
thinking about how the object concatenated with b in this world might
be situated in other possible worlds, we would give it a name and
stipulate its inclusion (under the same name) in the relevant alternative
worlds. On this approach possible worlds are constructed by the
theoretician, and their contents are ‘stipulated, not discovered by powerful
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telescopes’.63 But because states of affairs are completely independent,
there are any number of possibilities for different systems of
stipulations. We could not discriminate between different objects called
by the same name and states of affairs portrayed by the same sentence
under different stipulations. But Wittgenstein was a realist about objects;
according to the ontology of the Tractatus our inability to detect their
differences would not make the differences any less real. The Tractatus
considers no such possibility, let alone how such stipulations might be
constrained.
If the identities of objects rest on stipulation, so do the senses of
elementary propositions. Different stipulations will allow the same
propositions to be analysed as truth functions of different elementary
propositions. Under different stipulations material properties will reduce
to deployments of different objects. This need not sound so bad from the
standpoint of model semantic techniques which do not require
discriminations to be made among all of what the Tractatus would count
as different collections of possible worlds. But this is not Wittgenstein’s
point of view; the relevant semantic techniques were developed after the
Tractatus.
It need not sound so bad from the standpoint of programmes of
reduction and construction developed by the logical positivists. These
programmes allow the theoretician’s purposes to dictate the choice of
items to be treated as objects. For example, although Carnap’s
epistemological concerns led him to choose ‘experiences’ as the basic
elements of the Aufbau, he thought that given other interests,
‘physicalistic’ items could have been treated as basic.64 Wittgenstein
rejected this approach, at least in so far as the choice of basic elements
involves stipulations or assumptions concerning the forms of elementary
propositions. In 1931 he said it had always been clear to him that ‘we
cannot assume from the very beginning, as Carnap, does, that the
elementary propositions consist of two-place relations, etc’.65
It is ironic that such construction programmes are still commonly
associated with the Tractatus. It is historically important that their
treatment of objects, states of affairs, and the interpretation of names and
elementary propositions is profoundly non-Tractarian.
XII THE MEANING OF LIFE, THE
UNIVERSE, AND EVERYTHING
If Wittgenstein did not mind the incompleteness of the Tractatus
treatment of topics so many readers believed it taught them about, what
did he want his book to accomplish? Its preface (echoed by its closing
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line) says what the Tractatus shows is that the posing of philosophical
problems:
rests on the misunderstanding of the logic of our language. One
could capture (fassen) the whole sense of the book in something
like the words: What can be said at all can be said clearly; and that
whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent.
([4.45], 3; cp. p. 7)
This applies, for example, to ‘mystical’ questions about why there is a
world (T6.44), the nature and concerns of God (T6.432) and the source of
ethical and aesthetic value. (T6.41–6.421) It applies to questions about the
meaning of life (T6.52) and why we should do what is good rather than
what is wrong (T6.422). It applies to questions raised by philosophical
skepticisms (T6.51), solipsisms and realisms (T5.62–5.641). Propositions
can represent everything which can be the case (T3, 4.12A). But
philosophical problems are not questions about what is the case (T6.52,
6.4321, 4.1, 4.11). For the Tractatus, philosophy properly understood is an
activity aimed at resolving problems by the clarification of thoughts,
rather than a body of doctrine (T4.112ff.). The Tractatus and Wittgenstein’s
later works agree as much on this as they disagree about the nature of the
activity.66
For the Tractatus a crucial part of the activity would involve setting
out propositions in a logically perspicuous symbolism (T4.1213) which
reveals the essential features of the relevant symbols which must be
exhibited to clear away a philosophical problem. There are illustrations
of this for the case of problems whose resolution does not require us to
construct natural language propositions, use names for objects or grasp
the truth conditions of elementary propositions. For example, the
notation for joint negation resolves questions about what sorts of things
such logical constants as ‘¬’, , ‘&’ represent by showing that the
expression of truth functions does not require these signs to represent
anything (T4.0312, 5.4). Similarly for any p and q, the connections
between the truth grounds of q and (p & ) which explain why the
latter entails the former can be exhibited without interpreting any
elementary propositions. This allows Wittgenstein to dissolve questions
generated by the assumption that modus ponens reports very general
extra-linguistic facts—and similarly for other logical laws (see section
VIII above).
Wittgenstein thinks the cure for these and all other philosophical
problems (including the mystical ones) lies not in what propositions say,
but rather, in what is shown by various uses of signs—including the use of
logically perspicuous notations to say the same things as less perspicuous
ones. The employment of signs shows what the signs fail to say (T3.262).
While the employment of signs tells us (spricht) ‘what the signs conceal’
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(T3.262) it does not literally say it: ‘what can be shown cannot be said.’
(T4.1212). It looks as though these ineffables are conveyed in a number of
different ways. For example, although we cannot say of a proposition
(symbol) that it has such and such a sense, the proposition shows us what
its sense is by picturing it (T4.022). But presumably if the way Newtonian
mechanics allows us to describe the world shows us something about
world, it does not show us in the same way (T6.342)—or in the same way
that a proposition displays its pictorial form (T2.172). All that these and
other sorts of showings need and have in common is (a) that what is
conveyed is not the obtaining and non-obtainings of states of affairs, and
(b) that it is not conveyed in the same way that a proposition expresses its
sense.
A particularly important kind of showing is required for the sentences
of the Tractatus which Wittgenstein says ‘clarify’ (erläutern) the functioning
of language even though they are ‘nonsensical’ (T6.54). This includes, e.g.,
the sentences which present the picture theory, the ontology and the
method of construction by joint negation. It would include any locution
offering any semantical or syntactical analysis. Wittgenstein’s treatment
of identity illustrates the difference between this and another sort of
showing. ‘Roughly speaking, to say of two things that they are identical is
nonsense’ (T5.5303). This does not mean such expressions as ‘a=b’,
convey nothing. Instead, they convey what they convey
by showing rather than saying it. But the employment of a notation with
no identity sign can show the same thing in another way which ‘also
disposes of all the problems that were connected with such pseudo-
propositions’ (T5.535). A. logically perspicuous notation would employ
exactly one name for each object. The differences between the names
would dispense with the need to write down any thing like ‘a=b’ (T5.53).
The number of different names would show the same thing a non-
perspicuous notation would show (in a different way) by means of such
nonsense expressions as ‘there are (are not) infinitely many objects’
(T5.535). And it would show us that identity is not a relation if it provided
a way to analyse identity signs away from formulas which contain them.67
This—as opposed to the showing done by some nonsense sentences—is
the sort of showing illustrated by the use of joint negation to show that the
logical constants do not represent and that the justification of an inference
does not depend upon laws of logic (above). Wittgenstein appeals to these
(and other sorts of showing) in hopes of avoiding the need for a hierarchy
of languages, each one of which is described by expressions belonging to
the next language up. Instead of constructing a metalanguage to say, e.g.,
that ‘ab’ is true just in case a is concatenated with b, Wittgenstein’s idea
was that this could be shown by nonsense sentences in the same language
we use to say ‘ab’ or by features of that language. In effect, Wittgenstein
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appeals to different ways of communicating (saying and showing) in
place of metalanguages constructed to describe object languages.
But I do not think this is the only, or the most important, motivation for
the doctrine of showing. Wittgenstein was deeply concerned with
mystical issues including those the logical positivists called
‘metaphysical’ and hoped to eliminate by employing methods they
believed the Tractatus contained. Carnap said Wittgenstein gave him the
‘insight that many philosophical sentences, especially in traditional
metaphysics are pseudosentences devoid of content’.68 This sounds like
something you could learn from the philosopher who wrote that because
answers to ‘all possible scientific questions’ would leave the ‘problems of
life… completely untouched…there are then no questions left, and this
itself is the answer.’ (T6.52).
But Wittgenstein wrote to an editor to whom he had submitted the
Tractatus that its ‘point is an ethical one’. It consists, he said:
of two parts: the one presented here [i.e., the complete text of the
Tractatus] plus all that I have not written. And it is precisely the
second part that is the important one… I believe that where many
others today are just blathering (schwefeln) [about the sphere of the
ethical] I have managed…to put everything firmly into place by
being silent about it.69
This suggests that when Wittgenstein spoke of the vanishing of mystical
problems (T6.521) all he really meant was the vanishing of the blather
about them. He says ‘the sense of life’ has become clear to people after
long periods of doubt even though ‘they have been unable to say what
constituted that sense’ (T6.521)70 Far from denying the reality of what
these people could not express, the next passage affirms it: ‘there are,
indeed things that cannot be put into words. They show themselves. They
are the mystical’ (T6.522).
In contrast to these, what we can say, namely: ‘…[h]ow things are in
the world is a matter of complete indifference for what is higher’
(T6.432).
Wittgenstein seems to have felt that what can be said is insignificant in
comparison to what can be shown.71 If this is so, what Wittgenstein’s
readers thought they learned was not what he hoped to teach. The
Tractatus exerted its greatest influence through the works of empiricists
who thought that what cannot be said is nothing at all. They believed that
what is important can be discovered and expressed by the natural
sciences. They believed the mystical concerns of the unwritten part of the
Tractatus were delusions. They valued the Tractatus as a cache of weapons
to combat them.72
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NOTES
1 [4.45]. The original title was Logisch-Philosophisce Abhandlung. The title
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus was suggested by G.E.Moore. For a composition
and publication history, see [4.48], 1–33, 255ff. For the history and
circumstances of its composition, see [4.22] chs 7–8 and [4.23], chs 5–8.
2 Numbers in parentheses marked T are Tractatus section numbers.
3 Wittgenstein’s usage differs from Russell’s. For Russell, G.E.Moore’s having
recorded with Thelonius Monk is a negative fact. For Wittgenstein it is not a
fact of any kind and the relevant negative fact is that Moore did not record
with Thelonius.
4 I use ‘world’ for what [T2.06] calls ‘reality’; Wittgenstein’s worlds include
only positive facts.
5 Wittgenstein wrote a version of the truth table in 1912 on the back of a paper
Russell presented to the Cambridge moral sciences club [4.22], 160. Quine
says truth tables were used to set out truth functions independently of the
Tractatus in papers by Lukasiewicz, and Post in 1920–1, and that Peirce
described a non-tabular version of essentially the same method in 1885
[4.26], 14.
6 For example since N (3) has the same truth conditions as (2), we had best pick
another once we have got (3). For a complete discussion for the case of two
elementary propositions see [4.1], 133ff.
7 See [4.38], 480ff.
8 For details, see [4.1], 135ff.
9 [4.24], 297.
10 Cp. [4.1], 133–4.
11 [4.2], 312. We need the next steps because merely to select p as a value of is not
to construct it by joint denial.
12 [4.47], section 94.
13 For a discussion of this problem for the case of quantified propositions, see
[4.19].
14 A model according to von Wright; a diagram according to Malcolm. [4.21], 8,
57.
15 Cp. [4.46], 7, 27.
16 Cp. [4.37], [4.38].
17 [4.47], Section 94.
18 [4.25], 321. Anachronistically speaking, to judge ‘one thing’ is to believe
something definite enough to determine the truth conditions of the
belief. Wittgenstein’s quotation of some of this in connection with
picturing at [4.47], section 518, makes it plausible (without proving) that
he knew the passage when he wrote TS. For another version of the
argument see [4.3], 6ff.
19 [4.28], 28–33, [4.30], 528–33, [4.35], 193ff.
20 [4.6], 144.
21 [4.31], ch. XII, [4.34], 43, [4.36], part II, chs i-iii.
22 [4.12], 56–78. For a concise statement of Frege’s version of the problem, see
[4.14], 117ff. See also [4.1].
23 [4.14, 127].
24 For example, if there is no such person as Odysseus, the name ‘Odysseus’
lacks a reference and propositions like ‘Odysseus was set ashore at Ithaca…’
have sense but no reference [4.12, 63].
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25 [4.12]. This ignores many important details, most notably Frege’s treatment of
indirect reference.
26 See [4.8], 197, 280–1.
27 The last sentence of 4.442 rejects (and mis-states) Frege’s idea that to assert a
proposition is to commit oneself to its naming the True. For other points of
contact with Frege, see [4.2], 182–3.
28 [4.3], 104ff.
29 The constituents of Russell’s propositions are not the constituents of
Tractarian states of affairs. For example, (section X) Russellian objects are
sense data, not Tractarian simples and Tractarian situations contain no
relational constituents. For this and other differences between Russellian and
Tractarian atomism see [4.4], ch. 1.
30 Russell depends upon the theory of descriptions to analyse judgements
which seem to involve non-existing things. Thus my judgement that unicorns
live outside of Boulder, Colorado, relates me not to non-existent unicorns—
but to a collection of existing things at least one of which would be a unicorn
if my judgement were true.
31 [4.22], 174. Wittgenstein’s pressing of this point was not only decisive,
but remarkably harsh. In 1916 Russell wrote to Ottoline Morrell that
they ‘affected everything I have done since. I saw he was right and I saw
that I could not hope ever again to do fundamental work in philosophy.
My impulse was shattered like a wave…against a breakwater’. [4.22],
174–7.
The following from a letter to Russell from Austria in 1913 is a good place
to start trying to imagine what it might have been like to be personally
involved with Wittgenstein.
The weather here is constantly rotten, we have not yet had two
fine days in succession. I am very sorry to hear that my objection
to your theory of judgement paralyses you. I think it can only be
removed by a correct theory of propositions.
([4.49], 24)
32 I assume Wittgenstein is using ‘proposition’ here for collections of objects to
which Russell thought judging relates the mind of the judger. This would
accord loosely with both Russell’s and Moore’s usage during this period.
33 [4.27]. 13.
34 Cp. 3.11: If ‘the method of projection’ by which signs are used to picture
possible situations is identical to ‘the thinking of the sense of the proposition’
and if the sense of the proposition is that such and such is the case, then
judging, thinking, believing, etc. that such and such is the case should be
reducible to the relevant uses of signs. A 1919 letter to Russell says that the
elements of the thought are ‘psychical constituents which have the same sort
of relation to reality as words’, [4.49], 72.
Wittgenstein’s analysis has its problems. Wittgenstein does not say
what ‘p’ has to do with the person who judges, thinks, etc., that p. Thus, if
all claims of the form ‘A believes p’ are to be analysed as ‘“p” says p’, how
is the analysis supposed to capture the difference between the claim that
Thelonius believes p and the claim that Bud believes p? What sorts of signs
are involved in judging? Ramsey thought (quite plausibly) that they
should belong to some sort of mentalese, but Wittgenstein does not go into
this. Presumably, we can say that Thelonius believes that p, and what we
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say is contingently true or false. But the Tractatus seems to treat such
claims as that such and such proposition has such and such a sense as
unspeakable, and what is unspeakable should not be contingently true or
false.
35 See note 43.
36 This would be much easier to understand if it were a matter of syntactical
constraints on signs than it is to understand in connection with Tractarian
symbols.
37 See [4.41], 1–36 for an enlightening discussion of this and the importance of
Frege’s approach.
38 [4.17], 109.
39 [4–6], 145–6.
40 Cp. [4.45], Shwayder discusses this in detail, suggesting that part of
Wittgenstein’s point (at T3.5) in calling the applied propositional sign der
Gedanke (which should be translated ‘the thought’, rather than ‘a thought’)
and then saying that the thought is the meaningful proposition (4), was to
show how he proposed to get along without the Fregean sense (‘the thought’)
[4.38], vol II, 4–7).
41 [4.36], 115.
42 cp. [4.34], 93.
43 For example, the ratio of truth grounds common to and p&¬q (there are none)
to truth grounds of p&¬q is true is . Since tautologies are true in every world,
their probability is 1, given any non-contradictory proposition. Wittgenstein
does not tell us what to do about the fact that the probability of any
proposition given a contradiction will be .
44 Or so it seems; see section XI.
45 Not only in Tractatus, but also in discussion from 1927 on, and as expanded
and modified by Waismann in 1929 [4.5], 71ff.
46 [4.44], 33, 35.
47 Cp. [4.43], 93.
48 For example, by requiring every probability to equal 0, 1, or some number in
between.
49 Cp. [4.2], 256.
50 It is important that Wittgenstein’s conventionalism does not require him to
think that developing, accepting or using a scientific theory requires anyone
actually to find out what states of affairs there are and decide how to group
them, or to inspect the elementary propositions and decide which sorts of
truth functions to construct from them. The construction of truth functions
and complex situations is something the scientist must accomplish in order
to do his work. But just as people can speak without having any idea of
which muscles must be made to contract in order for them to utter words,
the scientist—like any other language user—can construct and employ
languages to describe phenomena ‘without having any idea of how each
word has meaning or what its meaning is’ (T4.002). This does not explicitly
mention science but there is no reason to think it does not apply to scientific
language.
51 I suppose ‘the precise way’ involves, e.g., how the Newtonian physicist must
think of time and space, what he must do, e.g., in choosing and employing a
reference system to locate bodies in the space and describe their motions—as
well as what must be done to calculate values of such quantities as Newtonian
force, acceleration and mass from observational data, what kinds of
computations are required for prediction, etc. See [4.2], 354–60.
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52 See, for example, [4.50], 5–7, 10, 17, 27, 62, 63, and [4.23] ch. 23.
53 [4.1], 25–9.
54 4.062 is typical of what little he does say on such subjects: it contrasts
propositions which we can understand without having their senses explained
with ‘the meanings of the simple signs (the words)’ which cannot be
understood without explanation. But he has just said that foreign language
dictionaries help us translate propositions by translating ‘substantives,…verbs,
adjectives, and conjunctions, etc.’, rather than whole propositions (4.025). Since
these are not Tractarian names, it is not clear whether 4.062 is a remark about
Tractarian names.
55 [4.46], 65
56 [4.42], Vienna Circle, pp. 233 ff. Among other things, this includes the
‘verification theory’, (one of the most important ideas attributed by the logical
positivists to Wittgenstein) in the form of the claim that ‘a proposition cannot
say more than is established by its method of verification’ and that ‘to say that
a statement has sense means that it can be verified’ (p. 244). No such thing
occurs in the Tractatus. But cp. ‘On Dogmatism’ (1931) in which Wittgenstein
decides that writing the ‘Theses’ was not such a good idea after all [4.43], 182
57 [4.46], 60, 67
58 Ibid., 60, 62
59 Constituted for example, by the way states of affairs an object belongs to are
collected into complex situations
60 This may explain why ‘space, time, and color…are forms of objects’ (2.0251).
Even though Tractarian objects neither are nor have colours Wittgenstein may
think that certain objects figure uniquely in states of affairs which determine
colour possibilities, and have colour as their form in just this sense. Similarly,
objects which figure uniquely in the construction of (physical) spatial facts
could be said to have space as their form even though they are not themselves
either physical spaces or spatial objects.
61 [4.16], ch 2 is an excellent (and as far as I know, the first) discussion of
difficulties in the individuation of Tractatus objects.
62 Ibid., 15–19.
63 [4.20], 44.
64 [4.5], 18.
65 [4.43], 182 This passage also eschews ‘hypotheses’ (i.e. ‘law[s] for constructing
statements’ (p. 255) concerning elementary propositions).
66 This may be one reason Wittgenstein wanted the Tractatus and the
Investigations to be published together [4.47], x.
67 Wittgenstein’s example of replacing (1)
with (2)
(5.5321) is troublesome unless he can rule out the
substitution of ‘a’ for both variables to obtain ‘ & ¬(Fa&Fa) as an instance of
(2). For other issues involving the elimination of identity see [4.10], 60–9;
[4.11], passim.
68 [4.5], 25.
69 Adapted from McGuiness’ translation in [4.9], 143.
70 Wittgenstein’s use of the word ‘sense’ is surely intended to make us contrast
this sort of meaningfulness with the meanings of propositions.
71 [4.10], 90. [4.9] includes sympathetic and persuasive support for this reading.
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72 My understanding and appreciation of Wittgenstein’s early work has been
greatly enhanced by conversation with and help from David Shwayder,
Robert Fogelin, Jack Vickers, Jay Atlas, and David McCarty. I am also
indebted to Howard Richner for spotting disasters in an earlier version of this
chapter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
4.1 Anscombe, G.E.M. Introduction to the Tractatus, Hutchinson, 1959.
4.2 Black.M. A Companion to Wittgenstein’s Tractatus, Cornell University
Press, 1964.
4.3 Bogen, J. Wittgenstein’s Philosophy of Language Some Aspects of its
Development, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972.
4.4 Bradley, R. The Nature of all Being, Oxford, Oxford University Press,
1992.
4.5 Carnap, R. ‘Intellectual Autobiography’ in P.A.Schilpp (ed.) The
Philosophy of Rudolf Carnap, LaSalle, Open Court, 1963.
4.6 Coffa, J.A. The Semantic Tradition from Kant to Carnap, To the Vienna
Station, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991.
4.7 Copi, I.M., Beard, R.W.(eds) Essays on Wittgenstein’s Tractatus, London,
Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1966.
4.8 Dummett, M. Michael Dummett, Frege, Philosophy of Language, London,
Duckworth, 1973.
4.9 Engelmann, P. Letters from Ludwig Wittgenstein with a Memoir, trans. L.
Furtmüller, Oxford, Blackwell, 1967.
4.10 Fogelin, R.J. Wittgenstein, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1976.
4.11 ——‘Wittgenstein on Identity’ Synthese 56 (1983):141–54.
4.12 Frege, G. (1892) ‘On Sense and Reference’ in [4.15], 56–78.
4.13 ——‘The Thought: a Logical Inquiry’ in [4.18], 507–36.
4.14 ——‘Negation’ in [4.15], 117–36.
4.15 ——Translations from the Philosophical Writings of Gottlob Frege, ed. and
trans. P.Geach, and M.Black, Oxford, Blackwell, 1970, pp. 56–78.
4.16 Goddard, L. and Judge, B. ‘The Metaphysics of Wittgenstein’s
Tractatus’, Australasian Journal of Philosophy Monograph No. 1,
(June, 1982), ch. 2.
4.17 Kant, I. Critique of Pure Reason, trans. N.K.Smith, Macmillan, 1953.
4.18 Klemke, E.D. Essays on Frege, Urbana, University of Illinois Press,
1968.
4.19 Kremer, M. ‘The Multiplicity of General Propositions’ in Nous xxvi(4)
(1991): 409–26.
4.20 Kripke, S. Naming and Necessity, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard
University Press, 1980.
4.21 Malcolm, N. Ludwig Wittgenstein, a Memoir, Oxford University Press,
1984.
4.22 McGuinness, B.F. Wittgenstein, a Life, Young Ludwig, 1889–1921,
Berkeley, University of California Press, 1988.
4.23 Monk, R. Ludwig Wittgenstein The Duty of Genius, New York, Free Press,
1990.
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4.24 Moore, G.E. ‘Wittgenstein’s Lectures in 1930–33’ in Moore, G.E.,
Philosophical Papers, New York and London, George Allen and
Unwin, 1970.
4.25 Plato Theaetetus trans. M.L.Levett, in M.Burnyeat, The Theaetetus of
Plato, Indianapolis, Hacket, 1990.
4.26 Quine, W.V.O. Mathematical Logic, Cambridge, Harvard University
Press, 1979.
4.27 Ramsey, F.P. ‘Review of Tractatus’ in [4.7], 9–24.
4.28 Russell, B. (1904) ‘Meinong’s Theory of Complexes and Assumptions’
in [4.35], 21–76.
4.29 ——(1905) ‘Review of: A Meinong’, Untersuchungen zur
Gegenstandstheorie und Psychologie in [4.35].
4.30 ——‘The Nature of Truth’, Mind 15 (1906):528–33.
4.31 ——The Problems of Philosophy, London, Williams and Norgate, 1924.
4.32 ——Human Knowledge, its Scope and Limits, New York, Simon and
Schuster, 1948.
4.33 ——‘Introduction’, in [4.45].
4.34 ——Principia Mathematics to *56, with A.N., Whitehead, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1962.
4.35 ——Essays in Analysis, in D.Lackey, (ed.) New York, George Braziller,
1973.
4.36 ——Theory of Knowledge, in E.R.Eames and K.Blackwell (eds), London,
Routledge, 1992.
4.37 Schwyzer, H.R.G. ‘Wittgenstein’s Picture Theory of Language’ (1962)
in [4.7].
4.38 Shwayder, D. ‘Wittgenstein’s Tractatus vols I and II, unpublished
doctoral dissertation on deposit, Bodleian Library, Oxford, 1954.
4.39 ——‘Gegenstände and Other Matters: Observations occasioned by a
new Commentary on the Tractatus’, Inquiry 7, (1964):387–413.
4.40 ——‘On the Picture Theory of Language: Excerpts from a Review’, in [4.7].
4.41 Vickers, J. Chance and Structure An Essay on the Logical Foundations of
Probability, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1988.
4.42 Waismann, F. ‘Theses’ in [4.43], 233–61.
4.43 ——Wittgenstein and the Vienna Circle, ed., B.McGuinness, trans. B.
McGuinness, and J.Schulte, New York, Barnes and Noble, 1979.
4.44 Wittgenstein, L. ‘Some Remarks on Logical Form’, 1929, in [4.7].
4.45 ——Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul,
1961.
4.46 ——Notebooks 1914–1916, ed., G.H.von Wright and G.E.M.Anscombe
trans. G.E.M.Anscombe, New York, Harper, 1961.
4.47 ——Philosophical Investigations, 3rd edn, trans. G.E.M.Anscombe, New
York, Macmillan, 1968.
4.48 ——Prototractatus, ed. B.F.McGuinness, T.Nyberg, G.H.von Wright,
Ithaca, Cornell, 1971.
4.49 ——Letters to Russell, Keynes, and Moore, ed. G.H.von Wright, Ithaca,
Cornell, 1974.
4.50——Culture and Value, ed. G.H.von Wright trans. P.Winch, Chicago,
University of Chicago Press, 1984.
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CHAPTER 5
Logical Positivism
Oswald Hanfling
I INTRODUCTION
‘Logical positivism’, writes a leading historian of twentieth-century
philosophy, ‘is dead, or as dead as a philosophical movement ever
becomes’ (Passmore [5.42]). Most philosophers today, and indeed for
some time past, would endorse this statement. In one sense it is absolutely
dead, for it lost its cohesive membership with the break-up of the group of
philosophers known as the ‘Vienna Circle’, due to political pressures in
the 1930s. It was here that the philosophy known as logical positivism had
been initiated, developed and energetically propounded to the
philosophical community throughout the world.
The ‘death’ of the movement was due, however, not only to the
dispersal of its members, but also to a widespread recognition of the
defects of its ideas. Now in this sense, probably most of the philosophy
studied in our universities is dead, for most of it is open to more-or-less
fatal criticisms; and criticism is regarded as one of the main approaches to
the great philosophers and movements of the past. However, what
hastened the widespread rejection of logical positivism was not merely
the (unsurprising) discovery that its doctrines were open to criticism, but
the aggressive and even arrogant way in which those doctrines were
propounded to the world. Chief among these was the ‘elimination of
metaphysics’. It was claimed by members of the movement that they had
noticed something about existing and traditional philosophy, which
would completely overturn it and render it largely otiose. There appeared
articles with such titles as ‘The Elimination of Metaphysics through the
Logical Analysis of Language’ (Carnap [5.5]) and ‘The Turning Point in
Philosophy’ (Schlick [5.24]). Carnap posed the question: ‘Can it be that so
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many men, of various times and nations, outstanding minds among them,
have devoted so much effort, and indeed fervour, to metaphysics, when
this consists of nothing more than words strung together without sense?’
International conferences were called with a view to disseminating the
new ‘insights’, and a grandiose project, The Encyclopedia of Unified Science,
was launched to give definitive expression to the new ‘scientific’ era in
which philosophical and other discourse would become part of the
discourse of science. In these circumstances it was not surprising that
critics of the new ideas were more than usually prompt, forthright and
thorough in their criticisms.
Nevertheless, logical positivism has an established place in the history
and continuing development of philosophy. At least three reasons might
be given for this. One is purely historical, regarding the considerable
impact and influence of the movement in its heyday. A second lies in the
intrinsic interest of its ideas, which I hope to bring out in what follows. A
third lies in the fact that even if no one today would call himself a logical
positivist, some of its main positions, such as verificationism, and
emotivism in ethics, are still referred to as parameters within which
discussions of particular topics, such as ethics or the philosophy of
religion or of science, are to be conducted. Again, it can be argued that
even if the parent plant is dead, many of its seeds are alive and active in
one form or another. In an interview in 1979, A.J.Ayer, a leading
philosopher of our time, who had been an advocate of logical positivism
in the 1930s, was asked what he now saw as its main defects. He replied: ‘I
suppose the most important…was that nearly all of it was false’. Yet this
did not prevent him from admitting, shortly afterwards that he still
believed in ‘the same general approach’ ([5.70], 131–2).
In a number of ways ‘the same general approach’ is still widespread
today, and indeed was so long before the advent of logical positivism.
Empiricism, in one sense or another, is a major thread running through
Western philosophy since the seventeenth century, including logical
positivism and much of the philosophy of today. The same is true of
‘reductionism’, and especially the assumption that mental phenomena
can be reduced, in some sense, to the vocabulary of the material or
physical. Another idea, which was central to logical positivism and
remains of central importance today, is that philosophical questions are
largely questions of language, and that theories of meaning are therefore
of central importance.
The movement originated in the 1920s among philosophers and
scientists of the ‘Vienna Circle’, under the leadership of Moritz Schlick,
professor at the University of Vienna. After some years of writing and
discussion, the Circle organized its first international congress in 1929,
attracting sympathizers from many countries. In 1930 it took over a
journal, renamed Erkenntnis, for the publication of its ideas. The British
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philosopher A.J.Ayer attended its meetings in 1933 and made its ideas
widely known in the English-speaking world with the publication of
Language, Truth and Logic in 1936 [5.1].
By that time the dispersal of the Circle was already under way, a
number of members having emigrated, mainly to the United States and
Britain. But there were also fundamental intellectual differences within
the Circle. One of these, between Schlick and Carnap and Neurath, will be
described below in section V.
An important influence was that of Wittgenstein, though he was not a
member of the Circle. Having retired from philosophy after the
publication of his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus in 1922 [5.28], he was
coaxed back into the subject by Schlick in 1927 and had regular meetings
with Schlick and Waismann, another member of the Circle. (Their
conversations are recorded in [5.27].) But from 1929 he declined to meet
with other members of the Circle, whose views he found
unsympathetic—a sentiment that was reciprocated by Otto Neurath, for
one. Nevertheless, the Tractatus was regarded by the Circle as a classic
statement of the new outlook in philosophy, and the work was read out
and discussed sentence by sentence in the period 1924–6. It was,
moreover, Wittgenstein who first formulated the ‘verification principle’
by which the new philosophy became known. Nevertheless it was he who
made the most decisive break from these ideas when embarking on his
‘later’ philosophy in the early thirties.
The philosophy of the Circle became known as ‘logical positivism’ or
‘logical empiricism’. The former name is more usual, but the latter,
preferred by Schlick, seems to me to be more appropriate. It has the
advantage of indicating the affinity of the Circle’s ideas with those of the
empiricist tradition begun by Locke in the seventeenth century, and later
represented by such thinkers as Mill and Russell. It is also readily
connected with the Circle interest in empirical science. Hence, although
this article is entitled ‘logical positivism’, I shall prefer to use the term
‘logical empiricism’.
The term ‘logical’ indicates a primary interest in language and
meaning, as opposed to knowledge. The main questions for such
philosophers as Locke and Descartes had been about the sources and
extent of knowledge, and the empiricist Locke claimed that sense
experience was the only source. In the new empiricism, by contrast, the
primary question was not ‘How do we know that p?’, but ‘What does “p”
mean?’
The new approach may be illustrated by the problem of ‘other minds’.
How can I know that other people really have thoughts and feelings, when
I can only observe their bodily movements and the sounds they utter? In
the new philosophy this problem of knowledge is transformed into one
about meaning. What does it mean to say that another person has such and
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such a feeling? According to the new philosophy, it can mean no more than
what is observable. Any statement about feelings as distinct from what is
observable will be meaningless. ‘It is not false, be it noted, but
meaningless: we have no idea what it is supposed to signify’ ([5.24], 270).
The logical empiricists recognized two, and only two, kinds of
meaningful statements. They are, first and mainly, empirical statements,
verifiable by observation. Second, there are statements, such as those of
logic and mathematics, whose truth can be known a priori; but these were
regarded as not presenting ‘new’ knowledge, but merely an analysis of
what was known already. Any other statements were to be dismissed as
meaningless ‘pseudo-statements’.
II THE VERIFICATION PRINCIPLE
‘The meaning of a proposition is the method of its verification.’ So ran the
principle as formulated by Wittgenstein and Schlick. (It was first
formulated by Wittgenstein, but its most frequent use occurs in the
writings of Schlick.)
In this sentence we have an answer to a long-standing question of
philosophy, namely, What does meaning—the kind of meaning that
language possesses—consist in? This question has sometimes been
answered in terms of words and sometimes in terms of sentences or
speech-acts. Locke answered it by reference to mental entities
corresponding to words, claiming that ‘words…signify nothing but the
Ideas that are in the mind of the speaker’ [5.78], 3.2.4). Wittgenstein, in the
Tractatus, had postulated ‘names’ as the fundamental units of meaning,
these ‘names’ being correlated with fundamental ‘objects’ in the world;
with a further ‘picturing’ relation between propositions and
corresponding ‘states of affairs’ in the world. The verificationist answer,
as I have said, was in terms of the method of verification of a given
proposition. Here was an apparently simple principle which could
provide a focus for both adherents and critics of the new movement.
As well as providing an answer to the question ‘What is meaning?’, the
principle was intended to provide a criterion to distinguish what is
meaningful from what is not. Thus, if there is no method of verification—
no way of verifying the proposition—then it must be meaningless.
It seems obvious that there is something right about the verification
principle; that there is, at least, an important connection between meaning
and verification. Thus, if we are unsure what someone means by his
words, we can often find out by asking how one would verify what he
said. And sometimes, at least, the admission that there is no conceivable
method of verification will lead us to conclude that what was said is
meaningless.
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On the other hand, there are a number of difficulties with the principle,
which may be divided into three, corresponding to the terms
‘proposition’, ‘is’ and ‘method of verification’.
The original German word for ‘proposition’ is Satz, and the
straightforward translation of this is ‘sentence’. There is a difficulty,
however, about treating sentences as objects of verification. Such a
sentence as ‘It is raining’ cannot be regarded as true or false in itself. It is
only when someone uses the sentence on a particular occasion that what he
says is true or false. In answer to this and other difficulties philosophers
have used the term ‘proposition’ to mean, roughly, what is asserted by
means of a declarative sentence. It is, according to this usage, propositions
that are true or false, and not the sentences by means of which they are
asserted.
But now another difficulty may arise. ‘Proposition’ is sometimes
defined as meaning an entity that is necessarily true or false. But if this is
so, then the question of meaningfulness has already been decided in using
the term ‘proposition’, for only what is meaningful can be described as
true or false. In other words, it would be self-contradictory to speak of a
meaningless proposition.
One way of overcoming this would be to put ‘putative’ before
‘proposition’; another, which I shall adopt, is to use the word ‘statement’.
In ordinary English we can ask of a statement, made by someone, both
whether it means anything and, if so, whether it is true. Some
philosophers have also defined ‘statement’ to mean what is necessarily
true or false (and hence meaningful), but there is no need for a
verificationist to follow this usage. In this article I shall prefer the word
‘statement’, but will sometimes follow the writers under discussion in
using ‘sentence’ or ‘proposition’, as the case may be. This seems the least
confusing way of proceeding. (For further discussion of the difficulty
about sentences and propositions, see [5.59] and [5.42].)
My next difficulty was about the word ‘is’, in the claim that meaning
‘is’ a method of verification. How are we to understand this
identification? ‘Meaning’ and ‘method’ are concepts of different types.
‘One can sensibly talk about using a method, but [not] “using a meaning”’
([5.52], 36). A method may be easy or difficult to carry out, it may take a
long or a short time, etc.; but these things cannot be said about the
meaning of a statement.
Nevertheless, it was thought essential to account for the meaning of
verbal expressions by reference to something other than verbal
expressions. Otherwise what would be the connection between language
and reality? This need was expressed as follows by Schlick:
in order to arrive at the meaning of a sentence or proposition we
must go beyond propositions. For we cannot hope to explain the
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meaning of a proposition merely by presenting another
proposition… I could always go on asking ‘But what does this new
proposition mean?’… The discovery of the meaning of any
proposition must ultimately be achieved by some act, some
immediate procedure.
([5.24], 219–20)
A similar thought was sometimes expressed with reference to words as
distinct from propositions, and here the notion of ‘ostensive definition’
(as distinct from verification) was invoked, as when we point to an
object to explain the meaning of a corresponding word, such as the word
‘red’. Wittgenstein expressed this thought as follows: ‘The verbal
definition, as it takes us from one verbal expression to another, in a sense
gets us no further. In the ostensive definition however we seem to take a
much more real step towards learning the meaning’ ([5.79], 1). This
passage, however, was written after Wittgenstein’s break from
verificationism, and in the ensuing pages he argued that such appeals to
‘reality’ as distinct from language could never supply the desired
detatchment from language. He imagined someone trying to explain the
word ‘tove’ by pointing to a pencil and pointed out that, in the absence
of all verbal information, this act might be taken to mean all sorts of
different things.
This brings us to the third difficulty; about ‘method of verification’.
What would be the relevant method in the case of, say, the statement ‘It is
raining’? I might verify this by putting my hand out of the window. But
this act might serve to verify all sorts of statements; and, on the other
hand, all sorts of methods might be used to verify the statement.
I began with a difficulty about identifying meaning with a method, as
indicated by the word ‘is’ in the verification principle. Suppose now that
we removed this word and spoke instead of a ‘correspondence’ between
meaning and method. This would still leave us with the difficulty just
mentioned. It is hard to see how Schlick’s requirement of ‘going beyond
propositions’—breaking out of the circle of language—could ever be
satisfied.
III THE CRITERION OF VERIFIABILITY
Not every verificationist was concerned, or mainly concerned, about
the question of what meaning consists in. One of the main aims of the
movement, as I said, was to distinguish what is meaningful from what
is meaningless, with the special aim of showing statements of
metaphysics to belong to the latter class. Now such a criterion can
easily be deduced from the verification principle. If the meaning of a
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statement is the method of its verification, then it will follow that if it
lacks such a method—if it is not verifiable—then it will, likewise, lack
meaning. It is possible, however, to advocate this criterion
independently, without deduction from the verification principle.
Thus, one might claim that unverifiable statements are meaningless,
without putting forward an account of what meaning consists in; and
this was the position of A.J. Ayer. He expressed the criterion of
verifiability, as I shall call it, as follows:
We say that a sentence is factually significant to any person if, and
only if, he knows how to verify the proposition that it purports to
express—that is, if he knows what observations would lead him,
under certain conditions, to accept the proposition as being true, or
reject is as being false.
([5.1], 48)
(Sometimes the term ‘verification principle’ has been used for the
criterion of verifiability, but the two tenets should not be confused.)
It should be noted that the word ‘verify’ is used here in the sense of
‘verify whether…’ and not ‘verify that…’ The latter would presuppose
that the proposition in question is true. But a proposition that is known
to be true is, by the same token, known to be meaningful; so that the
criterion would be redundant. The relevant sense of ‘verify’ is that in
which this is not known, so that, as Ayer implies, we do not yet know
whether the proposition will turn out true or false. Moreover, either of
these results would satisfy the criterion: what is at stake is not the truth
of the proposition, but whether it has meaning. Unverifiable
propositions, being meaningless according to the criterion, would be
neither true nor false.
By means of such a criterion it was hoped to proceed immediately to
the ‘elimination of metaphysics’, without getting involved in questions
about what meaning consists in. The discovery that the propositions in
question are meaningless would explain why philosophers who had
wrestled with them through the ages had never, apparently, succeeded in
getting anywhere, while, at the same time, providing the key to a
resolution of their problems.
It soon appeared, however, that the criterion was beset with
difficulties. First, there is simply the question of acceptance. In a
broadcast debate with F.C.Copleston, A.J.Ayer introduced the word
‘drogulus’ to stand for ‘a disembodied thing’ whose presence could not
be verified in any way. He put it to Copleston: ‘Does that make sense?’
But Copleston replied that it did make sense. He claimed that he could
form an idea of such a thing and that this was enough to give it meaning
([5.50], 747).
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Second, it proved difficult to formulate the criterion in such a way as to
yield the desired results—to exclude the statements of metaphysics while
admitting those of ‘science’ (including everyday empirical statements).
The formulation I quoted from Ayer was too weak, because all sorts of
observations might ‘lead’ someone to regard a proposition as true or as
false. In a further formulation he introduced the more rigorous notion of
‘deduction’. A statement is meaningful, he held, if ‘some experiential
propositions can be deduced from it’, the latter being defined as
propositions ‘which record an actual or possible observation’ ([5.1], 52). A
typical example would be ‘This is white’, which might result from the fact
that it is snowing. But while it is clear that this fact and this statement are
related, the relation does not seem to be one of deduction. There is, for
example, no logical deduction from the statement ‘It is snowing’ and, say,
the fact that I am looking out of the window, to the conclusion that ‘this is
white’, or the conclusion that I am seeing something white.
Suppose, however, that this difficulty could be resolved. In that case ‘It
is snowing’ would be vindicated because ‘This is white’ is deducible from
it. But clearly there is more than that to the meaning of ‘It is snowing’. And
might not the remainder be merely pseudomeaning, for all that Ayer’s
criterion has shown? This difficulty was illustrated in a striking way by
Carl Hempel, who supposed that some straightforward empirical
statement, such as ‘It is snowing’, had been conjoined with a piece of
‘metaphysical nonsense’, such as ‘The absolute is perfect’. This
conjunction would yield the same deductions as the empirical component
by itself; so that the conjunction as a whole would have to be declared
meaningful ([5.14]).
Various formulations were attempted by Ayer and others to escape
these and other difficulties, but it seems that what is required is not merely
deduction, but analysis. There must be a way of showing that the whole
meaning of a statement is, somehow, accounted for by observations and
the corresponding observation statements. Moreover, as we shall see, this
affects all kinds of ordinary statements and not just the rather fanciful
example constructed by Hempel.
IV ANALYSIS
According to Waismann, ordinary empirical statements were to be
analysed into ‘elementary propositions’, whose whole meaning would
consist in corresponding verificatory experiences.
To analyse a proposition means to consider how it is to be verified.
Language touches reality with elementary propositions… It is clear
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that assertions about bodies (tables, chairs) are not elementary
propositions… What elementary propositions describe are:
phenomena (experiences).
([5.27], 249)
There is a difference between this and verification in the ordinary sense.
The latter is an activity of some kind, and hence it made sense to speak of
a method of verification. But what seems to be meant in the passage just
quoted is that elementary propositions are to be verified by having the
corresponding ‘experiences’, as distinct from any activity.
But how is such analysis to proceed? From the true statement that
there is a table in my room, it would not follow that anyone is having a
relevant experience, since there may not be anyone in the room. The
view adopted, known as ‘phenomenalism’, allowed for this possibility.
According to it, a crucial role is played by hypothetical statements, such
as ‘If someone were in the room, he would have such and such
experiences’. But in what sense are such statements entailed by the
statement under scrutiny? Even if I am in the room, and endowed with
normal eyesight, I may fail to see the table. ‘You can’t miss it’ is
notoriously unreliable.
There was also a difficulty about entailment in the other direction.
From the fact that I am having the experience of seeing something brown,
etc., it would not follow that there is a table in the room; and neither
would it follow from my having the experience of seeing a table, for I
might have these and other experiences in the course of a dream or
hallucination. Just how far this kind of scepticism may be taken is a matter
for debate, but the sceptical view is encouraged by the empiricist reliance
on ‘experience’, conceived as something that occurs in us, is ‘imprinted by
the senses’, etc. This problem has been recognized from the beginnings of
empiricism, and in the case of logical empiricism it led to the view that
statements about tables and chairs are not ‘conclusively’ verifiable.
Wittgenstein spoke of them as ‘hypotheses’ which could not be
‘definitively verified’ ([5.80], 282–5).
A similar development took place with regard to general statements,
such as ‘All men are mortal’. The ‘all men’ in this statement is not
analysable into any finite conjunction of names, and the truth of the
statement would not follow from any finite number of verificatory
experiences. The same is true of scientific laws, such as ‘Water expands
below 4°C’, whose meaning is not confined to any finite number of
observations.
The discovery that the meaning of scientific laws, in particular, went
beyond any finite verification, was especially serious for a philosophy
which regarded scientific statements as paradigms of meaningful
discourse. One solution, advocated by Schlick, was to deny that a
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scientific law is a statement: it is really, he maintained, ‘an instruction
for the forming of statements’. A genuine statement must be
‘conclusively verifiable’, and this would be true only of the particular
experiential statements which would be produced under that
‘instruction’. A statement, he insisted, ‘has a meaning only in so far as
it can be verified; it only signifies what is verified and absolutely
nothing beyond this’; there cannot be a ‘surplus of meaning’ beyond
that ([5.24], 266–9).
Another approach was used to deal with statements whose
verification is impossible for technical reasons. Consider a statement
about the far side of the moon. When Schlick and Ayer considered this
example, verification was impossible and, for all they knew, might
always remain so. The same is true, for us, about speculations
concerning life on other planets. But it would seem absurd to claim that
whether such questions have meaning depends on the present
technology of space exploration. The answer was to describe the
relevant statements as ‘verifiable in principle’. ‘I know what
observations would decide it for me, if, as is theoretically conceivable, I
were once in a position to make them’ ([5.1], 48–9).
But what should we say about scientific statements or theories whose
meaning seems to go far beyond their verificatory content, even ‘in
principle’? Consider the statement that the universe is expanding, and
assume that it is based on the observation of a ‘red shift’ in the light
emitted from remote galaxies. It seems clear that the statement is not
merely about red shifts. Yet such a ‘reduction’ of meaning seems to be
required by the verificationist analysis. In this connection verificationists
enlisted P.W.Bridgman’s idea of ‘operationism’. On this view, the meaning
of statements about distant parts of the universe, for example, would
indeed correspond to the relevant scientific ‘operations’; there would be
no more to it than that. This meant, as Bridgman pointed out, that
ordinary words might change their meaning when used in a scientific
context. The meaning of ‘length’, he claimed, ‘has changed completely in
character’ in the context of astronomy. ‘Strictly speaking, length when
measured…by light beams should be called by another name, since the
operations are different’ ([5.4], 3).
A further difficulty arose about the analysis of statements about the
past. The statement ‘It rained yesterday’ might be verified, in the ordinary
sense, by present evidence including, perhaps, asking other people. But
the statement obviously does not mean any of these present things ([5.67],
329). Ayer offered a variety of analyses in attempting to meet the difficulty,
including the bold claim that the tense of a statement is not part of its
meaning, so that there would be no difference of meaning between
‘George VI was crowned in 1937’, ‘George VI is being crowned in 1937’,
and ‘George VI will be crowned in 1937’ ([5.1], 25, [5.3], 186).
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V THE ELIMINATION OF EXPERIENCE
In one way or another, the analysis of different kinds of statements
would lead to the ultimate ‘elementary propositions’, variously
described as ‘experiental propositions’, ‘observation-statements’ etc.,
whereby, as Waismann put it, ‘language touches reality’. At this stage the
speaker or hearer passes from linguistic activity to the occurrence of a
suitable experience or sensation which is supposed to give meaning to
the words. But here arose a problem which produced a serious split in
the ranks of the Circle. Experience and sensation are personal and in
some sense private; must not the same be true, then, of meaning? On this
view, the sentence ‘I am thirsty’, as Carnap argued, ‘though composed of
the same sounds, would have different senses when uttered by [different
people]’. But what, in that case, becomes of the claims of science, and of
language itself, to be communal activities? There was, thought Carnap, a
ready way of disposing of such awkward questions. ‘These pseudo-
questions’, he declared, ‘are automatically eliminated by using the
formal mode.’ By the ‘formal mode’ he meant a discourse that confined
itself to statements and did not try to go beyond these, to what he called
‘the material mode’. There was, he held, no need to talk about ‘the
content of experience’, ‘sensations of colour’ and the like; we should
instead refer to the corresponding statements, which he called ‘protocol
statements’. These, and not the corresponding experiences, would
occupy the fundamental role in the system—that of ‘needing no
justification and serving as the foundation for all the remaining
statements of science’ ([5.7], 78–83).
Carnap was uncertain about the form that these protocol statements
should take, proposing such expressions as ‘Joy now’, ‘Here now blue’
and ‘A red cube is on the table’ (Ibid., 46–7). But Otto Neurath argued that
such expressions could not be fitted into the system of science, unless the
reference of ‘now’ and ‘here’, and the identity of the speaker, were known
to others. He gave the following as a suitable example: ‘Otto’s protocol at
3:17 o’clock: [At 3:16 o’clock Otto said to himself: (at 3:15 o’clock there was
a table in the room perceived by Otto)] ([5.17], 163). This example,
however, is still not sufficiently purged of personal elements. We who
read it today would not know where in the system to place ‘3:17’ or ‘the
room’; and the same would be true of ‘Otto’, were it not for independent
knowledge of who Otto was. But perhaps Neurath was indicating the way
towards a still more complex kind of statement, which would be wholly
independent of reflexive reference.
Now it is clear that Neurath’s example is meant as a protocol
statement, because the term ‘protocol’ is used in it. But, now that the
connection with experience has been cut, what entitles it to this
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designation? Why should such statements be regarded as ‘needing no
justification and serving as the foundation’ of science? Neurath’s answer
was that there are, indeed, no statements having this status. ‘No
sentence’, he declared, ‘enjoys the “Noli me tangere” which Carnap
ordains for protocol sentences’ (Ibid., 164–5). To illustrate the point he
asked the reader to imagine an ambidextrous person writing down two
contradictory protocols at the same time.
After the elimination of experience, what becomes of verification and
truth? Neurath proposed that we might think of the system of science as
a kind of ‘sorting machine, into which the protocol sentences are
thrown’. When a contradiction occurs, a bell rings, and then some
exchange of protocol sentences must be made; but it does not matter
which (Ibid., 168). This conception of truth, known as the ‘coherence
theory’, would strike most people as paradoxical and is open to various
objections. An objection made by Schlick was that on this view we ‘must
consider any fabricated tale to be no less true than a historical report’
([5.24], 376).
Schlick, describing himself as ‘a true empiricist’ (Ibid., 400) was
resolute in his opposition to the elimination of experience. ‘I would
not’, he declared, ‘give up my own observation propositions under any
circumstances… I would proclaim, as it were: “What I see, I see”’
(Ibid., 380). In a number of writings he tried to overcome the difficulty
about the subjectivity of experience without giving up this cardinal
tenet of empiricism. In one of them he maintained that statements
have both a ‘structure’ and a ‘content’. The former they share with
corresponding facts; and ‘my propositions express these facts by
conveying to you their logical structure’ (Ibid., 292). But there is also a
private ‘content’, which ‘every observer fills in’ for himself, and which
is ‘ineffable’ (Ibid., 334).
In this matter too, logical empiricism was anticipated in the writings of
‘classic’ empiricists. According to Locke, we commonly think that words
have shared meanings, but this is a mistake, given that meaning is tied to
mental entities which he called ‘ideas’:
Though words, as they are used by men, can properly and
immediately signify nothing but the Ideas that are in the mind of
the speaker, yet [men]…suppose their words to be marks of the
ideas in the minds also of other men, with whom they
communicate.
([5.78], 3.2.4)
Locke accepted this difficulty rather lightly, claiming that it was not a
serious obstacle to communication. Such a treatment may seem
acceptable for a philosophy which concerned itself primarily with
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questions of knowledge. But in the new logical empiricism the matter
could not be passed over so lightly.
A further development, beyond the scope of this article, was the
celebrated ‘private language’ argument of Wittgenstein’s later work, in
which he made a decisive break from empiricist ideas about language,
arguing that the alleged ‘private’ meaning would not be meaning, in the
required sense, at all ([5.29], 1–243ff.).
VI THE UNITY OF SCIENCE
Another common feature that the new empiricism shared with the old
was its ‘reductionism’. Locke, for example, had insisted that the various
kinds and aspects of knowledge could all be reduced to a single type and
source, namely the ‘sensations’ with which our sense organs furnish us in
‘experience’ ([5.78], 2.1.24). In the case of the new empiricism a similar but
linguistic reductionism led to a grandiose project known as the
International Encyclopedia of Unified Science. In this work it was hoped to
show that all the different sciences, including the physical, biological and
human sciences, could be expressed in a fundamental common
vocabulary. Carnap’s proposal for this purpose was what he called the
‘thing-language’—that which we use ‘in speaking about properties of the
observable (inorganic) things surrounding us’: such words as ‘hot’, ‘cold’,
‘heavy’, ‘light’, ‘red’, ‘small’, ‘thick’ etc. (It will be noticed that this
proposal, unlike the verification principle, is about words rather than
statements.)
One aspect of the ‘unity of science’ that is of particular interest is its
application to human beings. It was thought that descriptions of human
feelings, for example, could be reduced to statements about observed
behaviour (‘behaviourism’), or other physical occurrences such as those in
the brain. (Here we see the beginnings of the ‘physicalism’ which, in
various forms, is prominent in the philosophical literature of today.) The
difficulties of behaviourism can be brought out by their effect on
Wittgenstein in his 1930–33 lectures as recorded by G.E. Moore. ‘When we
say “He has toothache”’, asked Wittgenstein, ‘is it correct to say that his
toothache is only his behaviour, whereas when I talk about my toothache
I am not talking about my behaviour?’ This cannot be so, because ‘when
we pity a man for having toothache, we are not pitying him for putting his
hand to his cheek’. Again, ‘is another person’s toothache “toothache” in
the same sense as mine?’. He now saw that according to the verification
principle, the meanings, following the difference in methods of
verification, must indeed be utterly different. Indeed, the difference was
not merely between methods of verification, since there is no verification at
all in case of the first person: ‘there is no such thing as verification for “I
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have”, since the question “How do you know you have toothache?” is
nonsensical’ ([5.16], 307).
Carnap tried to accommodate such difficulties in a number of writings.
In one of these he admitted that a person N1, ‘can confirm more directly
than N2 a sentence concerning N1’s feelings, thoughts etc.’; but, he went
on, ‘we now believe, on the basis of physicalism, that the difference…is
only a matter of degree’ ([5.10], 79).
VII THE ‘ELIMINATION OF METAPHYSICS’
One of the main objectives of logical empiricism was to provide a way
of demarcating the meaningful statements of science and ordinary life
from the ‘pseudo-statements’ of metaphysics. Now the word
‘metaphysics’ may mean various things. The verificationists used such
examples as Heidegger’s statement ‘The nothing nothings’, and F.H.
Bradley’s talk about ‘the Absolute’, as in the statement: ‘The Absolute
enters into, but is itself incapable of, evolution and progress’. This, said
Ayer, was ‘a remark [he had] taken at random’ from Bradley’s
Apperance and Reality. It was, he claimed, ‘not even in principle
verifiable’, and therefore nothing more than a ‘metaphysical pseudo-
proposition’ ([5.1], 49).
Now such a sentence, plucked ‘at random’ out of its context, might well
strike the reader as meaningless. But is this so because it is unverifiable?
Perhaps, if we read Bradley’s argument, we would find there the means of
assessing the truth of his statement. That would be the appropriate
method of verification in this case. In taking the statement out of its
context, Ayer had merely denied us access to the relevant method of
verification.
Perhaps what Ayer had in mind was that the method of verification
would not be empirical. Now this might well be true; but what would it
show? It might show that the statement itself is not empirical; but
perhaps it was never intended to be so. Merely to classify it as non-
empirical is not to show that it is a ‘pseudo-proposition’, nor even that it
is unverifiable.
Another class of statements to which verificationists turned their
attention were those about God. Such statements, it was argued, were not
necessarily meaningless, but the meaning ascribed to them should not
exceed their verificatory content. Carnap spoke of an early phase of the
concept of God, in which He was conceived as a corporeal being dwelling,
say, on Mount Olympus. Such statements would satisfy the verificationist
criterion, but this would not be true of the metaphysical accretions of later
phases of the concept. Ayer put the matter thus:
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If the sentence ‘God exists’ entails no more than that certain types
of phenomena occur in certain sequences, then to assert the
existence of a god will be simply equivalent to asserting that there
is the requisite regularity in nature.
([5.1], 152)
Here again the requirement is that of sense experience, of the observation
of phenomena by means of the senses. But is this the only kind of
experience? In a further passage Ayer spoke of ‘mystical intuition’. He
would not, he said, deny that ‘the mystic might be able to discover truths
by his own special methods’. But, he went on, the mystic’s statements, like
others, ‘must be subject to the test of actual experience’. But is not the
mystic’s experience itself a kind of ‘actual experience’? Some further
argument would be needed to show that such experiences cannot count as
verificatory.
This difficulty is part of a fundamental problem about the whole
empiricist programme. How is their preference for empirical statements,
and empirical methods of verification, itself to be justified? John Locke,
the father of empiricism, posed the question: ‘Whence has [the mind] all
the materials of reason and knowledge?’, to which he replied: ‘… in one
word, from experience: in that, all our knowledge is founded; and from
that it ultimately derives itself ([5.78], 2.1.2). But if this were so, how
could this knowledge itself have been obtained? The claim that all
knowledge comes from experience cannot itself be derived from
experience.
A similar difficulty arises if we turn the verification principle or the
criterion of verifiability on themselves. They are not themselves empirical
statements: must they not suffer the same fate as other non-empirical
statements? As Bradley observed, ‘the man who is ready to prove that
metaphysics is wholly impossible…is a brother metaphysician with a
rival theory of first principles’ ([5.77], 1).
This difficulty was recognized by verificationists, who made various
proposals to overcome it. Schlick claimed that the verification principle
was ‘nothing but a simple statement of the way in which meaning is
actually assigned to propositions, both in everyday life and science’ (5.24],
458–9); while Ayer said that his criterion of verifiability was to be
regarded ‘not as an empirical hypothesis, but as a definition’ [5.1], 21). But
what reason would there be for accepting this definition or Schlick’s
claim? As we have seen, they are not confirmed by the various ways in
which the word ‘meaning’ is actually used.
Another idea was to describe the principle or the criterion as a
‘proposal’ or ‘methodological principle’. This would exempt them from
self-application, since a proposal cannot be described as true or false,
verified or unverified. But what would it mean to adopt the proposal in
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question? According to it, I am to describe certain statements as
meaningless. But how can I do that unless I believe them to be
meaningless? (Of course I could say the word ‘meaningless’, but that is a
different matter.)
Leaving this difficulty aside, we may ask what would be gained if such
a proposal were to be adopted. One of the motives behind it, as we have
seen, was that of reductionism and the ‘unity of science’. It was thought,
and hoped, that the multifarious jungle of human discourse could all be
reduced to a single type. Wittgenstein, in his later writings, spoke
disparagingly of such aspirations as due to a ‘craving for generality’. He
now maintained that the uses of language—‘language-games’, as he
called them—are irreducibly various, and that the philosopher’s task was
to notice and expound the differences, resisting any temptation to impose
an artificial uniformity.
VIII THE ACCOMMODATION OF ETHICS
How are ethical statements to be accommodated under verificationist
criteria? Should they be accommodated at all? Carnap, at one stage,
declared: ‘we assign them to the realm of metaphysics’. But while it might
be thought that metaphysical discourse can safely be set aside as
unnecessary for the conduct of human life, this could hardly be so in the
case of moral discourse. Could the latter be regarded, perhaps, as a kind of
empirical discourse?
According to Schlick, this was the proper way of regarding it, as is clear
from the first sentence of his book on the subject: ‘If there are ethical
questions which have meaning, and are therefore capable of being
answered, then ethics is a science’ ([5.22]). He went on to maintain that all
of these conditions are fulfilled in the case of ethics. Words such as ‘good’,
he claimed, are used to express desires; and these belong to the science of
psychology. The ‘proper task of ethics’ was to examine the causal
processes, social and psychological, which would explain why people
have the desires they have.
But cannot something be described as morally good or desirable even if
people do not desire it? According to Schlick, this would make no sense.
‘If… I assert that a thing is desirable simply in itself, I cannot say what I
mean by this statement; it is not verifiable and is therefore meaningless’
([5.22], 19). There is no place in Schlick’s account for the aspect of morality
on which Kant laid so much emphasis: the conflict between desire and
duty, which is such a familiar aspect of moral life. He rejected Kant’s
account of moral discourse, accusing him of being out of step with the
ordinary meaning of ‘I ought’ (Ibid., no). Yet it makes good sense for a
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person to say, for example, that he ought to do X because he promised,
even though it is contrary to his desire.
A more common approach among logical empiricists towards moral
statements was to deny that they are really statements. In a paper
published in 1949, Ayer referred to his earlier view, ‘which I still wish to
hold, that what are called ethical statements are not really statements at
all, that they are not descriptive of anything, that they cannot be either
true or false’. This view, he now admitted, ‘is in an obvious sense
incorrect’, since in ordinary English ‘it is by no means improper’ to speak
of ethical statements as statements or descriptions, or to describe these as
true or false. Nevertheless, he continued, ‘when one considers how these
ethical statements are actually used, it may be found that they
function…very differently from other statements’. Yet, after all, ‘if
someone still wishes to say [they] are statements of fact, only it is a queer
sort of fact, he is welcome to do so’ ([5.3], 231–3). Here again is the craving
for uniformity—a wish to deny that ethical facts are facts, because they do
not conform to a preferred model.
To support his denial Ayer resorted to the existence of moral
disagreement. ‘Let us assume that two observers agree about all the
circumstances of [a] case…, but that they disagree in their evaluation of it.’
In that case, he claimed, ‘neither of them is contradicting himself (Ibid.,
236). Now in such a case we might indeed conclude that there is ‘no fact of
the matter’. But there are many other cases in which this is not so. If I have
said I will do you a favour, then I would be contradicting myself if I denied
responsibility for doing what I said. In that case it would be true, and a
fact, that I am under an obligation to do what I said. And, as Ayer
recognized, the word ‘true’ is freely used in moral discourse, in various
contexts.
As we have seen, Schlick regarded moral statements as factual and
verifiable, while Carnap and Ayer tried to dispose of them in other
ways. Another writer tried to analyse them into factual and non-factual
components. This was the moral philosopher C.L.Stevenson, whose
works were cited with approval by logical empiricists. According to the
first of Stevenson’s ‘working models’, the statement ‘This is wrong’
means ‘I disapprove of this; do so as well’. (He dealt similarly with the
words ‘ought’ and ‘good’.) The first part of this, he pointed out, is
amenable to verification, while the second, being an imperative, is not
([5.25], 21, 26).
A difficulty with which Stevenson wrestled was about applying this
account to someone who is asking himself whether X is wrong. This would
not be a factual psychological question, about whether he does in fact
approve of X; the question for him would be whether he ought to approve
of it. Another difficulty is that of making sense of the imperative ‘do so as
well’. A person can be requested to do something only if he can choose to
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do it; but this is not the case with approval. If you give me suitable
reasons, I may come to see that X is wrong; but I cannot do so at will, in
response to an imperative.
The connection with reasons was, however, denied by Stevenson. He
admitted that ‘a man’s willingness to say that X is good, and hence to
express his approval, will depend partly on his beliefs’, but pointed out
that ‘his reasons do not “entail” his expression of approval’ ([5.26], 67).
Now this is true enough; indeed, it is not clear in what sense an expression
can be ‘entailed’. But it remains the case that on the basis of suitable
reasons I may come to see (recognize, know it to be a fact) that X is wrong
and ought not to be done. If such facts do not conform to the reductionist
programme of logical empiricism, then it may be the programme that
should be questioned, rather than the status of moral facts.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Texts by Logical Positivists and Related Writers
5.1 Ayer, A.J.Language, Truth and Logic, 1936. Penguin, 1971.
5.2 ——The Foundations of Empirical Knowledge, Macmillan, 1940.
5.3 ——Philosophical Essays, Macmillan, 1965.
5.4 Bridgman, P.W. The Logic of Modern Physics, Macmillan, 1927.
5.5 Carnap, R. ‘Überwindung der Metaphysik durch logische Analyse der
Sprache’, Erkenntnis, 1931.
5.6 ——Der Logische Aufbau der Welt, F.Meiner, 1962.
5.7 ——The Unity of Science, transl. M.Black, Kegan Paul, 1934.
5.8 ——Philosophy and Logical Syntax, Kegan Paul, 1935.
5.9 ——The Logical Syntax of Language, trans. A.Smeaton, Routledge, 1937.
5.10 ——‘Testability and Meaning’, H.Feigl (ed.) Readings in the Philosophy
of Science, Appleton, 1953.
5.11 Hempel, C. ‘Some Remarks on Facts and Propositions’, Analysis 1935.
5.12 ——‘On the Logical Positivists’ Theory of Truth’, Analysis 1935.
5.13 ——Fundamentals of Concept Formation in Empirical Science, Chicago
1952.
5.14 ——Aspects of Scientific Explanation, Collier, 1965.
5.15 Juhos, B. ‘Empiricism and Physicalism’, Analysis 1935.
5.16 Moore, G.E., ‘Wittgenstein’s Lectures in 1930–33,’ G.E.Moore,
Philosophical Papers, Allen & Unwin, 1959.
5.17 Neurath, O. ‘Protocol Sentences’, in O.Hanfling (ed.) Essential Readings
in Logical Positivism, Blackwell, 1981.
5.18 ——The Scientific Conception of the World—The Vienna Circle’,
M.Neurath and R.S.Cohen (eds) Otto Neurath: Empiricism and
Sociology, Reidel, 1973.
5.19 ——Foundations of the Unity of Science, Vols I and II, University of
Chicago Press, 1969.
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5.20 Reichenbach, H. The Rise of Scientific Philosophy, University of
California Press, 1951.
5.21 Rynin, D. ‘Vindication of L*G*C*L P*S*T*V*SM’, ed. O.Hanfling,
Essential Readings in Logical Positivism, Blackwell, 1981.
5.22 Schlick, M. Problems of Ethics, Dover, 1962.
5.23 ——Gesammelte Aufsätze, Olms, 1969.
5.24 ——Philosophical Papers, Vol. II (1925–36), Reidel, 1979.
5.25 Stevenson, C.L. Ethics and Language, Yale, 1944.
5.26 ——Facts and Values, Yale, 1963.
5.27 Waismann, F. ‘Theses’, ed. F.Waismann Wittgenstein and the Vienna
Circle, Blackwell, 1979.
5.28 Wittgenstein, L. Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, Routledge and Kegan
Paul, 1922.
5.29 ——Philosophical Investigations, Blackwell, 1958.
Anthologies of Texts
5.30 Ayer, A.J. Logical Positivism, Allen and Unwin, 1959.
5.31 Hanfling, O. Essential Readings in Logical Positivism, Blackwell, 1981.
Critical Discussions
General
5.32 Berghel, M. (ed.) Wittgenstein, The Vienna Circle and Critical Rationalism,
Reidel, 1979.
5.33 Church, A. ‘Review of Ayer’s Language Truth and Logic’, Journal of
Symbolic Logic, 1949.
5.34 Feibleman, J.K. ‘The Metaphysics of Logical Positivism’, Review of
Mataphysics, 1951.
5.35 Feigl, H. ‘Logical Positivism after Thirty-five Years’, Philosophy Today
1964.
5.36 Gower, B. Logical Positivism in Persepctive, Barnes and Noble, 1987.
5.37 Haller, R. ‘New Light on the Vienna Circle’, The Monist 1982.
5.38 Hanfling, O. Logical Positivism, Blackwell, 1981.
5.39 ——‘Ayer, Language Truth and Logic’, in G.Vesey (ed.) Philosophers
Ancient and Modern, Cambridge University Press, 1986.
5.40 Kraft, V. The Vienna Circle, Greenwood, 1953.
5.41 Macdonald, G.F. (ed.) Perception and Identity, Macmillan, 1979.
5.42 Passmore, J. ‘Logical Positivism’ (three parts), Australasian Journal of
Psychology and Philosophy 1943, 1944, 1948.
5.43 ——‘Logical Positivism’, ed. Paul Edwards, Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
1972.
5.44 Sellars, R.W. ‘Positivism and Materialism’. Philosophy and
Phenomenology Research 1946.
5.45 Sesardic, N. ‘The Heritage of the Vienna Circle’, Grazer Philosophische
Studien 1979.
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5.46 Smith, L.D. Behaviorism and Logical Positivism, Stanford University,
1986.
5.47 Schilpp, P.A. (ed.) The Philosophy of Rudolf Carnap, Open Court, 1963.
5.48 Urmson, J.O. Philosophical Analysis, Oxford University Press, 1967.
On Verification and Meaning
5.49 Alston, W.P. ‘Pragmatism and the Verifiability Theory of Meaning’,
Philosophical Studies 1955.
5.50 Ayer, A.J. and Copleston, F.C. ‘Logical Positivism—A Debate’, eds P.
Edwards and A.Pap, A Modem Introduction to Philosophy, Collier,
1965
5.51 Berlin, I, ‘Verification’, ed. G.H.R.Parkinson, The Theory of Meaning,
Oxford University Press, 1968.
5.52 Black, M. ‘Verificationism Revisited’, Grazer Philosophische Studien
1982.
5.53 Brown, R. and Watling, J. ‘Amending the Verification Principle’,
Analysis 1950–1.
5.54 Copleston, F.C. ‘A Note on Verification’, Mind 1950.
5.55 Cowan, T.A. ‘On the Meaningfulness of Questions’, Philosophy of
Science 1946.
5.56 Evans, J.L. ‘On Meaning and Verification’, Mind 1953.
5.57 Ewing, A.C. ‘Meaninglessness’, Mind 1937.
5.58 Klein, K.H. Positivism and Christianity: a Study of Theism and Verifiability,
Nijhoff, 1974.
5.59 Lazerowitz, M. ‘The Principle of Verifiability’, Mind 1937.
5.60 ——The Structure of Metaphysics Routledge, 1955.
5.61 O’Connor, D.J. ‘Some Consequences of Profressor Ayer’s Verification
Principle’, Analysis 1949–50.
5.62 Ruja, H. ‘The Present Status of the Verifiability Criterion’, Philosophy
and Phenomenology Research 1961.
5.63 Russell, B. ‘Logical Positivism’, ed. R.C.Marsh, Logic and Knowledge,
Allen and Unwin, 1956.
5.64 Russell, L.J. ‘Communication and Verification’, Proceedings of the
Aristotelian Society suppl. vol., 1934.
5.65 Wisdom, J.O. ‘Metamorphoses of the Verifiability Theory of Meaning’,
Mind 1963.
5.66 Malcolm, N. ‘The Verification Argument’, N.Malcolm, Knowledge and
Certainty, Cornell, 1963.
5.67 Waismann, F. ‘Meaning and Verification’, ed. F.Waismann, The
Principles of Linguistic Philosophy, Macmillan, 1965.
5.68 ——‘Verifiability’, G.H.R.Parkinson (ed.) The Theory of Meaning,
Oxford University Press, 1968.
5.69 White, A.R. ‘A Note on Meaning and Verification’, Mind 1954.
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Historical Accounts
5.70 Ayer, A.J. Part of my Life, Oxford University Press, 1978.
5.71 Baker, G. ‘Verehrung and Verkehrung: Waismann and Wittgenstein’,
ed. C. G.Luckhardt, Wittgenstein: Sources and Perspectives, Cornell,
1979.
5.72 Magee, B. (ed.) ‘Logical Positivism and its Legacy’ (with A.J.Ayer), Men
of Ideas, London, BBC, 1978.
5.73 Morris, C. ‘On the History of the International Encyclopedia of Unified
Science’, Synthese 1960.
5.74 Schilpp, P.A. (ed.) The Philosophy of Rudolf Carnap, Open Court, 1963.
5.75 Wallner, F. ‘Wittgenstein und Neurath—Ein Vergleich von Intention
und Denkstil’, Grazer Philosophische Studien 1982.
5.76 Wartofsky, M.W. ‘Positivism and Politics—The Vienna Circle as a
Social Movement’, Grazer Philosophische Studien 1982.
Other Works Referred To
5.77 Bradley, F.H. Appearance and Reality, OUP, 1893.
5.78 Locke, J. Essay Concerning Human Understanding, P.H.Nidditch (ed.),
Oxford University Press 1975.
5.79 Wittgenstein, L. Blue and Brown Books, Blackwell, 1964.
5.80 ——Philosophical Remarks, Blackwell, 1975.
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CHAPTER 6
The philosophy of physics
Rom Harré
WHAT ARE THE BRANCHES OF THE
PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICS?
One convenient way of dividing up the investigations that make up the
philosophy of physics could be the following:
1 Analytical and historical studies of the development and structure of
the leading concepts used in the science of physics, such as ‘space-
time’, ‘simultaneity’ and ‘charge’.
2 Naturalistic and formal studies of the methodologies that have been
characteristic of physical science, including experimentation and
theory-construction, assessment and change.
3 Studies of the foundational principles of significant examples of
physical theory.
These three sorts of investigations can be found throughout the long
history of philosophical reflection on the nature of physical science. For
instance, in the writings of Aristotle [6.2] (c. 385 BC) there are extensive
discussions of many of the questions that still concern philosophers of
physics about the nature of the properties of matter. Conflicting views
about the methodology of physics are easily identified in the writings of
the ancients. For example, Plato’s remark that the task of astronomers is to
‘save the appearances’ has been contested, interpreted and reinterpreted.
In Lucretius’ De rerum natura [6.31] there is a sketch of a metaphysical
foundation for a general physics supposedly applicable everywhere in the
universe based on the idea of a world of unobservable material atoms.
It seems that these three clusters of studies could also be found in the
philosophy of chemistry. To disentangle what it is that is characteristic of
studies in the philosophy of physics, I shall have to say something about
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what distinguishes physics from all other natural sciences. Nowadays,
one would be reluctant to try to draw a hard-and-fast line between
physics and the other sciences. But for the purposes of this article, a rough
division might be effected as follows. Physics is the study of the most
general properties of matter. In chemistry and biology the unique
properties of particular kinds of matter are examined. With this rather
vague prescription in mind, we can pick out as physics studies of such
ubiquitous features of the material universe as its spatio-temporal
structure, and of the common properties that every material being shares
with every other, such as mass-energy and mobility. This way of
distinguishing subject by scope is rather simplistic. It is only very recently
that matter and radiation have been found to be mutually convertible and
so to have common properties. But the study of optics and the study of
mechanics have always been or almost always been branches of physics.
It is worth emphasizing the antiquity of philosophical investigations of
the science of physics. It has never been free of some philosophical
content. In times of crisis questions about ontology and about method
come to the surface. By a time of crisis, I mean a moment in the history of
the investigation of the physical universe in which the best theories that
we can construct according to the local criteria for identifying a good
theory, are in apparently irresolvable conflict with one another while they
are indistinguishable by reference to the results of observation and
experiment. In these circumstances, philosophical speculation returns to
the centre of the stage. Physics, more dramatically than any other science,
develops through the interplay between philosophical analysis of
conceptual foundations and what, at first sight, seems to be an
independent scientific research programme. I shall illustrate this feature
of the history of physics from time to time in the course of making my
more detailed remarks.
Before I turn to sketching some particular examples of conceptual
analysis, there is one further general distinction to be borne in mind.
Since the days of Euclid’s formalization of the science of geometry,
mathematics has played a central role in the development of physics,
but this role has not been uncontroversial. There is an important
distinction between different ways of interpreting mathematical
formalisms [6.47]. Is the abstract mathematical representation of the
laws of physics auxiliary or representational? Auxiliary mathematics
consists of formal devices by which the knowledge of the physicist can
be conveniently summarized and manipulated. I owe to John Roche a
very simple example of auxiliary mathematics. This is the grid of lines of
lattitude and longitude which geophysicists have laid over the earth. A
more complex example is the system of deferent circles and epicycles
with which Ptolemy calculated the ephemerides, the risings and settings
of the heavenly bodies. We are not justified in assuming a priori that all
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the technical devices employed in some mathematical formulation of a
law or theory have physical counterparts. The laws and principles of
quantum mechanics can be expressed mathematically in terms of
vectors in Hilbert space. But what could the physical meaning of the
leading concepts of the Hilbert space representation possibly be? What
physical sense could one give to the idea of a vector rotating in an
infinite dimensional ‘space’? Equally, it is a misunderstanding of the
second Bohr theory of the atom to ask for the physical counterparts of
the charged oscillators which replaced the planetary electrons of the
earlier theory. On the other hand there are plenty of theories in physics,
such as the Clausius-Maxwell theory of the behaviour of gases in which
every element in the mathematical representation is taken to be the
counterpart of some determinate feature of the physical system. Each
variable in pv=⅓ nmc2 can be given a physical meaning in terms of the
molecular model of gas.
I shall illustrate the three branches of the philosophy of physics by
outlining some recent discussion of topics of perennial interest. To
illustrate analytical and historical studies, I shall draw on problems of
the interpretation of relativity theory. An alternative example could
have been the concept of ‘mass’ which has also had a long and
interesting development. It has been sharpened, subdivided and
differentiated in response to experimental and theoretical advances
([6.28]). To illustrate methodological studies I shall take some very
recent work on the role of experiments in physics ([6.20]). I shall also
outline the debates between realists and anti-realists, concerning the
interpretation and role of theories in physics. Do they describe
unobservable but real entities and processes or are they merely devices
for predicting more phenomena ([6.46])? If the former, how could we
ever know whether we are getting a better and better picture of the
hidden world of.causal processes if we can never observe it directly
([6.33], [6.12], [6.3])? To illustrate foundational questions I shall turn
from the development of the dispositional treatment of the foundations
of Newtonian matter theory to debates about the meaning of the leading
concepts of quantum field theories ([6.10]). An alternative example
could have been the discussions of the significance of the Bell inequality
and the status of the EPR experiment ([6.16], [6.6], [6.5], [6.4]).
THE ANALYTIC AND HISTORICAL
STUDIES OF CONCEPTS
I shall divide the topics that fall under this heading into two broad
groups. There are those which are concerned with the analysis of
concepts which at first sight are taken to be independent of the
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particular theories within which they fall. So there are analyses of space,
time, causality, property, etc., which, though influenced by particular
theories in physics seem to be in some respects, independent of them.
On the other hand, there are analyses of leading concepts such as mass,
momentum, charge, force, etc., which it is hard to imagine being carried
out independently of the particular theories in which they have, from
time to time, been embedded.
These analyses, whether generic or specific, are usually conducted with
respect to larger questions. So, for example, developing and arguing for
analyses of concepts such as space and time, are part of long-running
controversies between absolutists and relationists. Do the concepts of
‘absolute space’ and ‘absolute time’ make sense? Some relationists would
argue that these hybrid concepts are logically incoherent. Discussions
about the proper interpretation of the concepts of mass, charge, force and
so on, are related to the broad issue of whether the physical properties of
things are best understood as dispositions, powers and propensities
([6.23], [6.43]). I shall take up this question again in the foundations
section.
In investigating the status of the kinds of concepts that I have
mentioned, it is important to bear in mind that these analyses are relative
to the state of physical science at the time that they are being carried out.
Yet they bear upon such general questions as whether we should favour
an absolutist or a relationist theory of space and time, or whether all
physical properties are really dispositions. Debates such as that between
Leibniz and Clarke ([6.1]) over the nature of space and time, though set in
the context of Newtonian physics, nevertheless have universal
significance.
One cannot say that there is no philosophy of physics independent of
the state of physical theory. The generality of the concepts involved
sometimes allows us to investigate concepts and to develop arguments
which transcend particular epochs in the history of the science itself.
At the beginning of this century relativity theory seemed to present a
radical challenge to a well-established conceptual system for expressing
spatial, temporal and causal relations. The community of physicists had
become accustomed to the idea of an absolute frame of reference,
though it was hardly ever necessary to invoke it in solving any actual
problem in physics. According to the popular myth, relativity theory
was something extraordinary and utterly radical. I hope to show that
such a picture is far from an adequate portrayal of the way in which
theories of space, time and space-time had evolved in the course of the
development of post-Aristotelian physics. Among many deep questions
that can be asked with respect to space and time is whether there is a
relation between the spatial and temporal location of an experimenter or
observer and the forms that experimenters or observers would use to
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express the laws of nature. Are they or are they not the same when an
experimental apparatus is run at one place and time rather than
another? Would the laws of nature seem to be the same if studied on a
moving platform as on one which was stationary relative to some
apparently fixed frame of reference? Or on one which was accelerating
with respect to some other platform on which stood the apparatus with
which the experiments had previously been done? Ultimately the
deepest question would be—could we discover which system of bodies
was moving or accelerating and which was really stationary by looking
for indicative changes in the laws of nature?
There are two ways in which absolutist views on space and time have
been challenged. Relativity theory challenges the idea that there is a
privileged reference frame, absolutely at rest, to which all motions
uniform or accelerating could be referred. There is also the ‘relationist’
challenge to that idea which can be mounted independently of the
question about reference frames. Relationists believe, with Leibniz, that
space and time do not exist independently of the material system of the
world. They are among the relational properties of that system.
Absolutists (lately called ‘substantivalists’ to distinguish them from those
who favour ultimately a non-relativist position in physics) believe that the
space-time manifold is a substance which exists independently of the
material world of charges, forces and fields ([6.11]). My illustrative
example concerns the absolutist/relativist issue, not the substantivalist/
relationist debate.
Let me briefly sketch how one now sees the historical progression that
leads to the contemporary interpretation of relativity theory. The idea
that the forms of laws of nature are independent of spatio-temporal
location is expressed in the technical notion of covariance of the law
under a coordinate transformation. To take a simple example: changing
the coordinates of a location in a Cartesian plane each by a fixed
quantity is a transformation. If the coordinates were x and y before the
transformation and are x-a and y-b after, it is as if we moved the whole
reference frame a units to the right and b units upwards. If a law of
physics has the same form before and after the transformation is applied
to the coordinates, we say that it is ‘covariant under the transformation’.
However, that technical idea is a version of a more fundamental
conception. It expresses the idea that the forms of the laws of nature are
indifferent to (that is unaffected by) changes in location, epoch or
relative velocity of the frame with respect to which they are studied. We
can detect the very beginnings of the covariance or indifference to
location idea in the writings of Nicholas of Cusa ([6.4]). Contrary to the
Aristotelians, who believed that space and time had instrinsic
structures, the laws of nature differing with the location in which they
are studied within that structure, Cusa introduced a general principle of
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indifference. His elegant epigram ran as follows: ‘the centre and the
circumference of the universe are the same’, or in other words, physical
laws are indifferent to their location in space and also, he believed, in time.
The next step in freeing physical processes from the influence of
space and time came with the work of Galileo ([6.18]). In a striking
image, he asked us to imagine conducting experiments inside a ship on
a smooth sea. He argued that it would be impossible to discover
whether the ship was in motion or at rest relative to the sea, by
experimenting in a closed cabin. The relative motion between ship and
ocean would have no effect upon the results of our experiments.
Physics would always be the same inside the ship, no matter what its
uniform velocity was relative to the ocean. This is the principle of
Galilean relativity. Newton certainly subscribed to this principle. The
laws of mechanics were thought to be indifferent, or covariant, as we
might say to the Galilean coordinate transformation. In that
transformation we can change the mathematical expression for
uniform motions by any amount we like, the mathematical equivalent
of slowing down or speeding up the ship by a definite amount relative
to the ocean, and the laws of nature will preserve their form when
expressed in the new coordinates.
All went merrily until the development of a comprehensive set of laws
for electromagnetism by Clark Maxwell. Voigt showed in 1891 that
Maxwell’s laws were not covariant under the Galilean transformation.
This implied that it might be possible to find electromagnetic evidence of
our real or absolute motion through some uniform and universal
background. It seemed that, in principle, one could find one’s way about
and perhaps even determine one’s velocity with respect to some absolute
frame of reference. Since it was the electromagnetic laws which were not
covariant under the Galilean transformation, perhaps an electromagnetic
aether might serve as just the absolute background that physicists needed.
This was the project of Michelson and Morley (for an exposition of the
work of Michelson and Morley, emphasizing the importance of the
apparatus see [6.22]).
By the end of the nineteenth century, however, it had become clear
that there was a coordinate transformation under which the laws of
electromagnetism were covariant. This was the Lorentz transformation.
The situation had now become very interesting. The Maxwell laws of
electromagnetism are covariant with respect to the tranformation of
Lorentz but not with respect to that of Galileo. The laws of mechanics
are covariant with respect to the transformation of Galileo but not with
respect to that of Lorentz. Both are covariant with respect to the Cusan
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transformation, but this was taken to be so obvious as not to be worth
remarking. This was the situation that Einstein confronted.
Essentially, Einstein had to solve two problems ([6.15]). How to make
a reasoned choice between electromagnetism on the one hand and
mechanics on the other as the most basic physical science. His reasons
for choosing the electromagnetic option have to do with the need he felt
to preserve a thorough-going symmetry between the process of
electromagnetic induction that occurs when a moving conductor cuts
the lines of force of a stationary magnetic field and that which occurs
when a moving magnetic field interacts with a stationary conductor. If
we assume an electromagnetic aether, the processes will be different in
each case. He thought this intolerable. So he chose to privilege
electromagnetism by denying the necessity to postulate an aether. This
choice served not only to eliminate the aether from physics but to
elevate the Lorentz transformation to be the dominant principle of
covariance. His second problem was to find a new form for the laws of
mechanics so that they too would be covariant under the Lorentz
transformation. If this could be done, physics would be unified. There
would be one physics and all its laws would be independent of the
place, moment and relative velocity of the material system in which they
were tested. He found these laws and they are none other than the laws
of the special theory of relativity.
But now we can see that there was a third problem. With respect to
what spatio-temporal structure are the new laws of mechanics, together
with the laws of electromagnetism, indifferent? Einstein did not solve this
problem himself. We owe its solution to Minkowsky ([6.36]). In the
Minkowsky manifold, space and time are not independent systems of
locations and moments. There is a four-dimensional manifold in which
physical processes are imagined to take place. Minkowsky coordinate
systems, moving with uniform relative velocity with respect to one
another, now become the frames of reference with respect to changes
between which the laws of nature must be indifferent. Wherever and
whenever an experiment is conducted in the Minkowsky manifold, the
result should be the same.
General relativity simply extended the same idea one step further.
Einstein pursued the project of finding a formulation for the laws of
nature which would leave them covariant under the general coordinate
transformation, including that between frames of reference accelerating
with respect to one another. Corresponding to the Minkowski manifold of
special relativity came the famous curved space of general relativity
which represents a manifold, with respect to which the laws of nature are
absolutely indifferent.
The story of relativity is the story of one programme progressively
developed, acquiring a more and more sophisticated form as the history
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of physics has unfolded. It begins in 1440 with Cusa’s Of Learned Ignorance
([6.41]) and culminates in general relativity. At each step yet another
candidate for the one absolute space-time manifold was deleted from
physics.
There is a connection with the absolutist (substantivalist)/relationist
debate. Clearly, if the laws of nature are indifferent to their presumed
locations in manifolds of space or time or space-time, then those
manifolds can play no role whatever in the physical sciences. Absolute
space, absolute time and absolute space-time are redundant.
Experimental proof of this redundancy by Michelson-Morley is not in fact
part of the history of relativity theory. It was, so to say, a comforting result
that confirmed Einstein in the wisdom of privileging electromagnetic
laws and their properties in his programme of research.
Relativity has turned out to be a cousin of relationism. But the triumph
of relationism is by no means the foregone conclusion. There are still some
reasons for thinking that there may yet be a place for an absolutist space-
time in the physical sciences. These have to do with the status of the
space-time manifold as required by general relativity. It is argued ([6.38])
that even in the absence of all matter-fields this manifold would still have
a structure. Therefore, it cannot be just one of the sets of relations that
order the material stuff of the world.
Exemplary cases of conceptual analysis of other physical notions have
occurred throughout the history of physics. One notices in the Clarke-
Leibniz controversy, as a footnote, a conceptual investigation into the
notion of quantity of motion, in which the distinction between
momentum and energy is foreshadowed.
METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS IN THE
SCIENCE OF PHYSICS
From the earliest days of mathematical astronomy, the nature of
physical theory has been a matter of perennial dispute. The arguments
have turned on the balance that one can draw between epistemology
and ontology. Clearly, in some sense, that which is known through
perception, the observable, has some kind of privileged ontological
status, even though we know that many of our ontological claims made
on the basis of perception are disputable and have sometimes had to be
revised. Physical theory, however, characteristically seems to refer to
processes such as the orbiting of the planets, entities, such as subatomic
particles and structures, such as the curvature of space-time, that lie
beyond perception. What, then, is the status of our knowledge of these
beings and what of their standing as existences alongside and perhaps
as components of that which we can perceive? Anti-realists have tended
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to privilege the deliverances of the senses, particularly the sense of sight,
both ontologically and epistemologically. Realists, more cautious
epistemologically, have nevertheless been bolder ontologically, and
have tried to find ways in which attributes of physical theories,
particularly their power to engender new kinds of experiments, have
been taken as grounds for interpreting them realistically, and thereby
adding to our ontology, enlarging the list of kinds of things we believe to
make up the world. However, sceptics have little difficulty in finding
grounds for pressing the interpretation of physics back in the anti-realist
direction. They ask how we can be sure of the truth of our laws, when
we have very limited grounds for accepting them, the classical problem
of induction. How we can be satisfied with theories when our grounds
for accepting them are only their predictive and retrodictive powers,
since it is easy to demonstrate that there are infinitely many theories
with the same predictive and retrodictive power, the problem of under
determination, first formulated by Christopher Clavius. Quite recently a
new mood has spread among philosophers of physics. Diagnosing the
source of the weakness of realism as a commitment to the principle that
science aims to establish the truth of the propositions of physical theory,
a new school of neo-pragmatist philosophies of science animated to
some extent by a reading of the philosophy of Niels Bohr ([6.27], [6.37])
has appeared. These philosophers have argued that a realist
interpretation of physical theory should be taken as doctrine that
theories are good in so far as they give us just sufficient understanding
of the unobservable to allow us to manipulate it ([6.21]). Manipulability
is the concept which allows us to penetrate beyond the bounds of
perceptibility.
There are some important consequences that flow from the new
‘pragmatic’ realism. In one respect it harks back to an eighteenth
century conception of the logical status of physical properties. At that
time, the popular philosophy of physics decreed that our knowledge of
the physical world was a knowledge of the powers and disposition of
otherwise unknown entities. We knew them through what they could
bring about. In very much the same way, the Bohrian philosophy of
physics asks us to consider the world in so far as it appears to us
through the dispositions it displays in apparatus of our own devising.
There is another consequence which follows from this point of view.
The early ecologists developing concepts to understand the way in
which species of animals are related to their physical environment
have coined the concept of umwelt. The umwelt of a species is that
region of the world which is available to the species by virtue of its
biological endowments. The physical world is broader and richer than
the sum of the umwelten of the animals which inhabit it. This concept
was used to explain how it was possible for different species of animals
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to occupy the same physical environment. Each carved out its own
umwelt. In a similar way, one could treat the worlds of physics as
umwelten and the development of the physical ontology as the
successive marking-out of an ever-changing umwelt for humankind
with respect to the experimental apparatus and conceptual systems
with which they explored it. So the new philosophy of science is realist
in a new way. The world is that which we make available to ourselves
and our knowledge of it is our knowledge of what it is capable of
doing and being made to do by our manipulations.
The next question that obviously arises in relation to the move from
anti-realist to realist conception of physical science concerns the nature of
physical theory. If we think of physics in the anti-realism manner as the
statistics of perceptual experiences or even the statistics of the
performance of instruments, while all else is of no ontological significance
and merely serves the role of intervening variables to carry us from one
empirical statement to another, we would be inclined to follow the
philosophies of science of Mach ([6.32]) and Duhem ([6.14]). According to
these philosophers theory performs only a logical role: an inference
machine for Mach, a taxonomical system for Duhem. However, when one
examines physical theory and considers the development of the
theorizing in a certain field of enquiry, one is struck by the fact that the
theories of physics do not seem to be about the world at all. They are at
least, ostensibly, about models of the world. A model, in this sense, can be
either an abstract representation (a homeomorph) or a paramorph, which
is an analogue of something we do not yet know but believe to exist. A law
of nature like pv=a constant, is an idealised description of the behaviour of
an abstract version of a real gas. The corresponding theoretical
proposition, pv=1/3 mc2, is a description of the molecular model of what a
gas might be like. This view of theory has been about for more than three
decades ([6.48], [6.26]). It is now becoming popular again. A philosophical
question that is immediately evident if we think about theory in this way,
is how this view fits with realism. Thinking it through, the fit is rather
nice. Having given up the idea that realism must be defined in terms of
the truth of propositions but rather thought out with reference to the
manipulability of objects to which theory guides us, the idea of theory
centred on a model of reality is very attractive. Model and reality are, so to
say, beings of the same sort, and we can consider the fit of a model to that
of which it is a model in terms of similarities and differences. The problem
of which similarities are to be counted as important is itself readily soluble
by reference to the structure of the theoretical concepts which constitute
the discursive part of the theory. Some properties will appear as essential
and some as accidental. Similarities and differences gain their importance
from the extent to which they are drawn from the real and nominal
essences of the beings in question, that is from our ideas about their inner
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constitutions and from our criteria for assigning them to kinds on the
basis of their observable properties.
The shift from positivism to realism to what one might call post-
realism or neo-pragmatism also involves rethinking of the role of
experiments. In the logistic account of science, whether positivistically
conceived or developed in the fallibilist mode by Karl Popper ([6.42]),
gives a logical account of experiment. An experiment is done in order to
provide a rational being with a proposition of the form ‘Some A are B’ or
alternatively, if it so turned out, ‘Some A are not B’. The significance of
the experiment is determined by logical relations between those
propositions which describe the experimental results and the general
hypotheses to which they are considered relevant. So the logical account
requires us to accept either inductivism or fallibilism. In the former we
would have to accept the force of some pattern of inductive reasoning,
in which the result in some cases, those that have been studied, are
generalized to all cases, a notoriously shaky inference. In the latter we
would have to rely upon the fallibilist pattern, that while we can draw
no certain conclusion from a positive result, a prediction that turns out
to be false justifies us in rejecting the hypothesis from which it was
drawn. Neither is satisfactory.
The evident mismatch between the logicist way of construing
experiments with the neo-pragmatist view of science, suggests the
possibility of conceiving of experimentation in a much broader
fashion. If we are endeavouring to see by experiment how well our
models match reality, then we should not think of experimenting as a
way of producing propositions to stand in a logical relation to a theory.
We should think of the performance of an experiment as doing work in
the world directed towards producing a certain outcome under the
guidance of the theory. The question is not whether the theory in use is
true or false, but whether, read as a set of instructions, it enables us to
do what we aim to do. There is a sense to be given to the verisimilitude
of a theory, but not in the prepositional mode, not centred on truth. In
particular we are concerned with manipulating the world as if it were
well-matched to our model. Indeed, there are specific model-matching
experiments, some of which have been of enormous importance in the
development of science. One which I find particularly instructive is the
Page and Townsend experiments, by which a model of the flow of
fluids with respect to bounded media is matched against a subtle
experimental revelation of what the structure of such fluid motion
‘actually’ is (that is what the motion appears to be by the use of an
ultramicrosope). Interesting cases arise where our faith in the iconicity
of our models is based only upon their power to suggest
manipulations. It seems to me that our main reason for believing in the
reality of the magnetic field is the set of effects we can bring about by
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procedures which, we believe, act directly on that field. Changes so
induced then bring about effects we can observe, such as the swing of
the pointer of a galvanometer.
The notion of ‘model’ which I have been assuming in this discussion so
far is the familiar one of analogue. One system is a model of another if it is
analogous in relevant ways. But there is another, connected, sense of
‘model’ which has also been prominent in the writings of some
philosophers of science ([6.49], [6.50]). In logic a model is a set of entities
and relations which can be used to interpret an abstract calculus. If the
formulae of the calculus, interpreted as meaningful sentences by the use
of such a domain of entities and relations, are all true when used of that
domain, then that set of entities and relations is a model for the calculus.
In logic there is a calculus and a model is needed to give it meaning; in
physics a model or analogue of reality is imagined and a theory is
subsequently created by describing the model. At the end of the day, so to
say, the relation between calculus, theory and model is the same in both
cases. However, in the order of creation, logic and physics run in opposite
directions.
Disputes about how physical theory should be presented can be
found throughout the history of physics. They were particularly
prominent in the sixteenth century when many philosophers treated the
heliocentric and geocentric astronomies, many versions of which were
on offer in the mid-sixteenth century, as alternative mathematical
systems. Ways of answering the question as to which formal system was
to be preferred were interestingly divided between those who thought
that anti-realist criteria, like simplicity and logical coherence, were of
prime importance and those who favoured realist criteria, like the
ontological plausibility of the model of the solar system that the
mathematical structure represented.
In the late eighteenth, through the nineteenth century, Newtonian
mechanics became the focus of a considerable effort to rework its formal
representation. This was in part animated by the discovery of
Maclaurin’s paradox, perhaps more justly attributed to Boscovich.
Boscovich [6.8] noticed that the grand Newtonian theory was internally
incoherent, indeed, self-contradictory. The concept of action, ‘force ×
time’, which was essential to setting up Newton’s third law, that in
action by contact action and reaction are equal and opposite, required all
such action to take place in a finite time. But the Newtonian ontology
required the ultimate material particles to be truly hard, that is
incompressible. It follows that all action by contact must be
instantaneous, since the ultimate contacting surfaces cannot deform.
Forces in instantaneous Newtonian impact would, according to the
mechanical definition of action, be infinite. But there is no place for
infinite forces in the Newtonian scheme. A variety of strategems were
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developed to try to resolve the difficulty. In general physicists in France
tended to favour theories without forces ([6.13]), whereas the English
and some of their continental allies tended to favour a mechanics
without matter, the so-called dynamical interpretation ([6.24]).
Great advances were made in the mathematics of physics, in the course
of the working out of these alternatives. The Lagrangian formulation, the
Hamiltonian formulation and Hertz’s immensely influential
reformulation of mechanics were all attempts in one way or another to
come to terms with the same fundamental problem.
But there is another kind of investigation which we could classify as
foundations of physics. This is the project of finding the minimal or most
elegant formal representation of a scientific theory. In these cases, the
mathematician-philosopher is driven by an interest in the aesthetics of
formalisation rather than by some metaphysical paradox, such as the one
uncovered by Boscovich and Maclaurin. In the present century some very
interesting developments have hinged on attempts to provide alternative
formal representations in which the very foundations of a theory are
revealed in a clear and unambiguous way. For example, the matrix theory
of Heisenberg and the wave mechanical formulation by Schrödinger of
the laws of quantum mechanics, though they were shown to be
mathematically equivalent in some sense, were animated, in part at least,
by ontological differences between their authors. Lucas and Hodgson
[6.30] sum up an enormous variety of ways of arriving at the Lorentz
transformation. There are many different paths by which this important
group can be arrived at. Sometimes exercises of this sort, the formulation
of an alternative mathematical representation, are significant. But
sometimes they seem to be little more than formal exercises, mere
auxiliary mathematics.
The way that the results of experimenal manipulations enter into
the record of physics as phenomena is exceedingly complicated.
Goodings [6.20] has analysed the paths by which the personal
experience of the discoverer of a new phenomenon makes it available,
conceptually and manipulatively to the community of scientists and
ultimately to everyone. A key move in the transformation of personal
experience into public phenomenon is the elimination of all traces of
the human hand that was involved in the early occasions of its
production. Goodings shows that the circularity of the motion Faraday
demonstrated as a natural electromagnetic effect was extremely
difficult to produce on the laboratory bench, let alone understand. To
explain how this transformation is achieved Goodings introduces the
idea of a ‘construal’. It could be a way of describing, a picture, a
diagram or anything by which a scientist, in interaction with others,
makes the phenomenon available as such. In applying construals the
great scientists of history transform complex chains of fragile steps
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into simple sequences of surefire manipulations. Faraday describes
seventy-five steps in recording how he first produced circular
electromagnetic motion in his own laboratory. The published
description of the procedure mentions only forty-five steps. The final
simplification to a mere twenty steps occurs in his set of instructions
for anyone to reproduce the effect.
FOUNDATIONAL DEBATES
The indeterminacy of subatomic processes that had first appeared in
experiments with electrons was eventually canonized rather than
resolved in the mathematical theory of quantum mechanics. Quantum
mechanics has been the source of one of the major conceptual problems
which has beset physical science for the last seventy years. At the heart of
Newtonian physics was an assumption of the strict causality of all
physical processes and the determinate character of all physical effects.
Quantum mechanics provides a formalism by means of which a
description of the state of preparation of a system can be linked to
predictions about the probabilistic distribution of the effects of certain
treatments of that system. The theory provides no way in which
determinate outcomes can be predicted from knowledge of the original
state of the system. Here is the dilemma. Is this because the way we now
understand the state of any physical system is actually complete? This
would seem to imply that there are real propensities to vary the outcomes
of identical operations performed on identically prepared systems,
contrary to the ordinary notion of determinate causality. Or is there
something missing in our knowledge of electrons and other subatomic
particles, knowledge which would restore the determinate structure of
physical theory? Perhaps there are ‘hidden variables’ which do behave
deterministically.
Arguments about the viability of hidden variable theories are almost as
old as quantum mechanics itself. Can we find a theory based on the
assumption of the existence of a set of attributes which we can ascribe to
subatomic particles and their states of preparation from the determinate
mathematics of which we could recover the probabilistic results for
quantum theory as it is now understood?
So far, the answer has been equivocal. It is now clearly understood that
there is no way in which a theory employing the familiar classical
concepts of momentum, energy and so on, could be formulated, to
provide a determinate hidden variable theory ([6.5]). Every experiment so
far conducted has only given stronger and stronger support to the ‘Bell
inequality’, the mathematical condition that expresses the principle of no
hidden variables. On the other hand, there have been hidden variable
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theories constructed using exotic concepts from which the existing
quantum mechanical results can be recovered [6.44]. However, they lack
any serious degree of physical plausibility.
In quantum field theory, another and yet more fascinating conceptual
problem has arisen. It is now some fifty years since the idea of
expressing field interactions as the exchange of particles was first
proposed. The idea has been, one might say, extremely successful, at the
cost of the development of theories of incredible mathematical
sophistication. The quantum theory of fields is now a very well-
developed speciality in physics, but it leaves us with a tantalising
conceptual problem. The particles which are exchanged in interactions,
say, the photons that are exchanged in an interaction between two
electrons, are not identical with the photons, the flux of which is the
light with which we are familiar. These photons are virtual, that is, they
exist in and only in the interaction, if they exist at all. Furthermore, as
imagined, they have properties which differ from the familiar properties
of the photon of light. They are like light quanta, but not quite like light
quanta. Are they real?
Recently, the idea of using the analogy between the light photon and
the photon of quantum electrodynamics as a basis for developing
theories of other kinds of fundamental interaction, the weak
interaction, the strong interaction and even gravity has led to the
proliferation of such ‘virtual particles’. I think it would scarcely have
crossed the minds of most physicists to ask about the reality of virtual
particles, were it not for the use of the structure of reasoning through
which the light quanta became the models for quantum
electrodynamics. In quantum electrodynamics, the virtual photon is
modelled on the real photon, if I may be permitted to put the matter
that way. Then weak interaction particles, the w+ and w-, and z0
particle are modelled upon the virtual photon. They are all species of
the same genus. Then, in a reversal of the reasoning which led to the
conception of the virtual photon, the idea of a real w particle, or a real
z particle seemed to be a natural development from the quantum field
theory of the weak interaction. The programme for hunting the w’s
and z’s was defined, and in the manner in which such events are
achieved, they were eventually ‘discovered’.
I believe that this pattern of reasoning which is characteristic of
quantum field theory was at least in part responsible for raising the
question of the reality of the intermediate vector particles which carry the
forces of interaction. If there are real versions of these particles, then
surely there is some sense to the reality of the particle as the physical
bearer of the field ([6.10]).
A clear formulation of the idea that there is a distinctive set of
properties, the behaviour of which defines the subject matter of physics
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first appears in the seventeenth century. At that time the perceptible
attributes of material things were classified as primary or secondary
depending on their relation to human sensibility. Those which existed
only in the act of perceiving were classified as secondary. Those which
were thought to exist independently of the perceptual capacities of
human beings were taken as primary. Galileo [6.17] seems to have so
tightly tied the primary qualities to the science of physics as to make the
one definitive of the other. Secondary qualities were marked by the way
that they varied in quality, intensity and duration with the state of the
human perceiver. Locke [6.29] completed the philosophical treatment of
the distinction by carefully analysing the relation that must be supposed
to obtain between secondary qualities, such as the power of a body to
induce a colour sensation in a human observer, or an observable change in
another material body, such as the power of fire to melt ice, and states of
material bodies by virtue of which they had these and other powers. He
sharply distinguished between ideas and qualities. Ideas are mental,
including, for instance, sensations of colour. Qualities are material,
including the properties of coloured things. This distinction enabled
Locke to come at the distinction between primary and secondary qualities
by a different route from that followed by Galileo. Ideas of primary
qualities resembled the qualities as they existed in the material world. But
the ideas of secondary qualities did not. Red, as a perceptible quality, does
not resemble whatever property it is that causes a human being to see an
old Soviet flag as red in hue. Generalizing the theoretical use of the
concept of primary quality, Locke took the qualities that ‘in the material
body’ caused corresponding ideas of secondary qualities as just those
which are central to the conception of matter as it is used in the science of
mehanics. All this is tied together by the thesis that the quality in the
perceived thing that corresponds to the idea of colour, say, that is the
secondary quality itself, is nothing but a power, a power to induce the
relevant sensation. What the word ‘red’ refers to in the thing that is seen as
red is a disposition. But it is grounded in an occurrent state of the
perceived thing. According to this metaphysical scheme that state must be
some combination of primary qualities.
For the scientist-philosophers of the seventeenth century, physics was
mechanics. It was the study of the primary qualities of material bodies.
Friction, for instance, as a mechanical disposition, must be grounded in
the atomic structures of the interacting bodies. Mechanics, the basic
science, was based on an absolutist metaphysics. Locke’s philosophical
account of the foundations of physics required two main categories of
concepts. One set of concepts were relational. Many of the qualities of
material things are dispositions to cause perceptible effects in a human
being or in other material things. Whether they are activated or not
depends on the contingent existence of suitable targets for their activity.
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The other category of qualities was absolute. The properties on which
the dispositions are grounded are primary. Primary qualities are so
defined as to be independent of the relations between the material
things which possess them and human beings or to anything else. Boyle
[6.9] sums them up as the ‘bulk, figure, texture [arrangement] and
motion’ of the elementary material things or corpuscles. The word
‘corpuscle’ was preferred to the word ‘atom’ by the sophisticates of the
period, since it left open the question of whether the constituents of
matter that were elementary for chemistry or mechanics were truly
atomic, that is, indivisible in principle. Though Newton listed many
dispositions amongst the primary qualities of matter, he shared the
assumption of his contemporaries that there were some absolute physical
properties. In the second edition of the Principia the list of the
mechanical properties of matter are a mixture of the occurrent and the
dispositional. Newton (1690) writes of the ‘extension, hardness,
impenetrability, mobility, and inertia of the whole [body] which ‘result
from’ the corresponding properties of the parts. To have inertia, says
Newton, is ‘to be endowed with certain powers’ [6.39]. Inertia appears
in the list of primary, mechanical properties as the power to resist
acceleration. But inertia is not mass in Newton’s metaphysics. Mass is an
occurrent property. It is that which grounds the disposition identified as
inertia. To give mass its occurrent character Newton defines it as
‘quantity of matter’. Since the mass per unit volume differs from
material to material, a universal matter, serving as a basic common
substance, would have to exist in different states of diffusion. In a
substance of low density the matter is rarefied, while in a substance of
high density it must be compressed. One physical scheme to
accommodate this difference would be basic atoms in a void with more
or less pores between them. There would be fewer such atoms in a given
volume of a light substance than in a similar volume of one that was
more dense. Newton seems to favour this account. The basic atoms
would be full, and so of uniform density. Lacking pores they must be
incompressible and impenetrable. I have emphasized above the problem
this thesis raised for Newton’s general mechanics.
Though most of Newton’s primary qualities are dispositions, they are
nevertheless absolute in one of the dimensions on which the notion of the
absolute figures. In Rule III Newton asserts that they ‘are to be esteemed
the universal qualities of all bodies whatsoever’ whether or not they are
‘within the reach of our experience’. As primary qualities they are not
relative to human sensibility, but by the same token they are a mix of the
relational and the absolute. In Newton’s scheme mass, inertia, extension
and mobility must exist even in a body wholly isolated from all other
material beings. It seems to follow from the definition of mass that
Newton’s physics includes at least two absolute properties of matter. The
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quantity of matter would seem to be unaffected by the presence or
absence of other material things. Since the quantity of matter of a body is
related to its spatial extension, and that to absolute space, it would seem
that extension and mass are both absolutes in Newton’s scheme. The close
conceptual tie between absolute space and mass is further underlined in
Newton’s argument for the intelligibility of the concept of absolute
motion:
if two globes, kept at a given distance one from the other by means
of a cord that connects them, were revolved about their centre of
gravity, we might, from the tension of the cord, discover the
endeavour of the globes to recede from the axis of their motion.
([6.39])
By testing to see in which direction impressed forces bring about the
greatest increase in that tension, we can find not only the angular velocity
of the globes in absolute space but also the true plane of the motion with
respect to that space. To suppose that a force will appear in the cord when
the globes are set rotating, Newton must be assuming that the masses of
the globes are unaffected by the absence of all other matter. The masses
are absolute qualities. If mass is a quantity of matter, then indeed that
assumption seems natural and also inevitable.
The generality with which Newton uses the notion of ‘power’ is
evident in Query 31 of the Opticks.
And thus, Nature will be very conformable to herself and very
simple, performing all the great motions of the heavenly bodies by
the attraction of gravity which intercedes those bodies, and almost
all the small ones of their particles by some other attractive and
repelling powers which intercede the particles.
([6.40])
There is yet another root idea in Newton’s conception that gravity cannot
be a primary quality because it suffers ‘intensification and remission of
degree’. So there must be a more basic power, ‘an agent acting constantly’
which is the absolute, because non-relational element, in the physics of
gravity.
Mach’s (1883) criticism of Newton’s metaphysics is usually presented
as an attack on the assumption that mass is an absolute property ([6.32]).
But Mach’s argument develops in two steps. He first shows that mass is
best considered as a relational property in his analysis of the basic laws of
mechanics. The argument goes as follows: consider an impact of tensions.
The body A is falling under gravity. When the string joining it to the body
B, resting on a smooth surface becomes taut, A will decelerate and B
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accelerate. Since the string is taut at the moment of ‘impact’ the force
decelerating A will be equal to that accelerating B, so Mach argues. Let
that force be ‘F’. Then if the mass of B is mb, the mass of A is ma, and the
accelerations fb and fa respectively, the equation of motion for the whole
system is ma.fa=-mb.fb
Mass appears here, and in all other contexts of mechanics, as a ratio. In
this case the ratio is equal to the negative inverse of the quotient of the
accelerations. Mass and inertia are the very same relational disposition.
Given this prior analysis, Mach’s treatment of the experiment of the
globes (and of the more complicated argument of the thought experiment
we call Newton’s bucket, which involves a refutation of the Cartesian
conception of locally real motion) in which the assumption of the
persistence of inertial properties into the isolated system of the globes is
entirely consistent. It simply involves the generalization of the
relationality of the mass concept to the components in the simple system
of the impact of tensions to the structure and contents of the universe as a
whole. Mach completes a trend that began in the sixteenth century, a trend
to replace absolute versions of the properties of material things with
relational properties. Not only are these properties dispositions,
manifested only in the interactions between material bodies, they are also
relational in the sense that they are not grounded in some intrinsic
property of isolated material individuals but in their relations to all the
rest of the bodies of the universe.
One can tie together the seemingly disparate mechanics of Newton
(read relationally) with quantum field theory by the realization that
there is a common structure to their deep ontologies. In what sense do
any of the ‘particles’, actual or virtual, exist? It seems obvious that only a
dispositional account of their manner of being makes any sense. By that
I mean that our claims about the world-in-itself made on the basis of the
experiments by which apparatus, has (permanently) a disposition to
display itself in such and such a way in the behaviour of that apparatus.
Or to put it in Popper’s terms only the set-up has propensities to yield
this or that phenomenon. The phenomena are ephemeral, but it is they
which are particulate or wavelike or whatever it might be. In this
treatment we have both of Bohr’s famous principles, that of
complementarity and that of correspondence. Complementarity
because set-ups which exclude each other produce, as a matter of fact,
disparate and complementary phenomena; correspondence because the
state of an apparatus-world set-up can be described for a human
community only in the terms made available in classical physics, the
physics the concepts of which are paradigmatically defined by the
things and events of the ordinary world.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
6.1 Alexander, H.G. The Clarke-Leibniz Correspondence, Manchester,
Manchester University Press, 1956.
6.2 Aristotle, Metaphysics, trans. W.D.Ross, The Works of Aristotle, vol. VIII,
Oxford, Clarendon Press (ca. 335 BC), 1928.
6.3 Aronson, J.L. ‘Testing for Convergent Realism’ British Journal for the
Philosophy of Science 40 (1989):255–60.
6.4 Aspect, A., Grangier, P. and Roger, C., ‘Experimental realization of the
E-PR-B paradox’, Physical Review (le Hess), 48 (1982):91–4.
6.5 Bell, J. Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1987.
6.6 Bohr, N. ‘Discussion with Einstein’, in P.Schilpp (ed.) Albert Einstein:
Philosophes Physicist, vol. I, New York, Harper, 1949, pp. 201–41.
6.7 Bohr, N. Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge, New York, Wiley, 1958.
6.8 Boscovich, R.J. A Theory of Natural Philosophy, Venice, 1763.
6.9 Boyle, Hon. R. The Origin of Forms and Qualities, Oxford, 1666.
6.10 Brown, H.R. and Harré, R. Philosophical Foundations of Quantum Field
Theory, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1990.
6.11 Butterfield, J. ‘The Hole Truth’, British Journal for the Philosophy of
Science 40 (1989):1–28.
6.12 Cartwright, N. How the Laws of Nature Lie, Oxford, Clarendon Press,
1983.
6.13 D’Alembert, J. d’ Traité de Dynamique, Paris, David, 1796.
6.14 Duhem, P. The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory, Princeton, Princeton
University Press, 1906 (1954).
6.15 Einstein, A. ‘On the electrodynamics of moving bodies’ in H.A.Lorentz
et al.; (eds) The Principle of Relativity, New York, Dover, 1905 (1923),
pp. 53–65.
6.16 ——‘Remarks to the Essays Appearing in this Collective Volume,’ in
P.A. Schilpp (ed.) Albert Einstein: Philosopher-scientist, New York,
Harper, 1959.
6.17 Galileo, G. Il Saggiatore, (1623) in G.Stillman Drake (ed.) The Discoveries
and Opinions of Galileo, New York, Doubleday, 1957.
6.18 ——Two New Sciences, 1632, trans. H.Crew and A.de Salvio, New York,
Dover, 1914.
6.19 Giere, R. Explaining Science, Chicago, Chicago University Press, 1988.
6.20 Goodings, D. Experiments and the Making of Meaning, Dordrecht,
Kluwer, 1991.
6.21 Hacking, I. Representing and Intervening, Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1983.
6.22 Harré, R. Great Scientific Experiments, Oxford, Oxford University Press,
1985.
6.23 Harré, R and Madden, E.H. Causal Powers, Oxford, Blackwell, 1975.
6.24 Heimann, P.M. and McGuire, J.E. ‘Newtonian Forces and Lockean
Powers’, Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 3 (1971):233–306.
6.25 Hertz, H. The Principles of Mechanics, 1894, New York, Dover, 1956.
6.26 Hesse, M.B. Models and Analogies in Science, London, Sheed and Ward,
1961.
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6.27 Honner, J. The Description of Nature, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1987.
6.28 Jammer, M. The Concept of Mass, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard
University Press, 1961.
6.29 Locke, J. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, ed. J.Yolton,
London, Dent, 1961.
6.30 Lucas, J.R. and Hodgson, P.E. Spacetime and Electromagnetism, Oxford,
Clarendon Press, 1990.
6.31 Lucretius, De Rerum Natura c. 50 BC trans. R.E.Latham
Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1954.
6.32 Mach, E. The Science of Mechanics, (1883), La Salle, Open Court, 1960.
6.33 ——The Analysis of Sensations, Chicago, Open Court, 1914.
6.34 Maxwell, J.C. The Scientific Papers of J.C.Maxwell, ed. W.D.Niven,
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1890.
6.35 Miller, A. Imagery in Scientific Thought, Boston, Birkhauser, 1984.
6.36 Minkowski, H. ‘Space and time’ (1908), in H.A.Lorentz et al. (eds) The
Principle of Relativity, New York, Dover, 1923.
6.37 Murdoch, D. Niels Bohr’s Philosophy of Physics, Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1987.
6.38 Nerlich, G. The Shape of Space, Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press, 1976.
6.39 Newton, Sir I. Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1686),
Berkeley, University of California Press, 1947.
6.40 ——Opticks, (1704), New York, Dover, 1952.
6.41 Nicholas of Cusa Of Learned Ignorance, (1440), trans. G.Heron London,
Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1954.
6.42 Popper, K.R. The Logic of Scientific Discovery, London, Hutchinson,
1959.
6.43 ——A World of Propensities, Bristol, Thoemmes, 1981.
6.44 Ptowski, I. ‘A Deterministic Model of Spin Statistics,’ Physical Review,
48 (1984):1299.
6.45 Rae, A.I.M. Quantum Physics: Illusion or Reality, (1986), Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1994.
6.46 Redhead, M. Incompleteness, Non-locality and Realism, Oxford,
Clarendon Press, 1987.
6.47 Roche, J. Personal communication, 1990.
6.48 Smart, J.J.C. ‘Theory Construction’, in A.G.N.Flew (ed.) Logic and
Language, Oxford, Blackwell, 1953, pp. 222–42.
6.49 Sneed, J.D. The Logical Structure of Mathematical Physics, Dordrecht,
Reidel, 1971.
6.50 Stegmüller, W. The Structure and Dynamics of Theories, New York,
Springer-Verlag, 1976.
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CHAPTER 7
The philosophy of science
today
Joseph Agassi
THE PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE HAS A
REMARKABLY LOW STANDARD
Science began in Antiquity as a branch of wisdom, and philosophy ( = the
love of wisdom) was distinguished from wisdom only by philosophers.
Cultivators of science in its early modern times (c. 1600–1800) called
themselves philosophers, and their activity was called not science but
natural philosophy. What we call today the philosophy of science includes
the theories of knowledge (epistemology) and of learning (methodology),
as well as the study of the principles of science (metaphysics, the
philosophy of nature). The first two disciplines were at the time neglected
as they were considered marginal; the third, metaphysics, was deemed
distinctly dangerous. Natural philosophers did not consider their work
impractical; they called themselves ‘benefactors of humanity’, as they
were convinced that their activities, in addition to their intrinsic merits,
will bring peace and prosperity to the whole world. But they insisted that
the practical aspects of science, significant as they surely are, can only
appear as by-products, not as the outcome of study directed to any goal
other than the search for the truth: any other goal will render research
biased and so worse than nothing.
It is not that applied science evolves all by itself, as the application of
knowledge for practical purposes certainly requires efforts, including
research. But the research for any practical purpose need not, it was
taken for granted, be a search for knowledge. To make this clear, it may
be useful to contrast the classical, typically eighteenth-century view
with today’s view: today we recognize within science not two but three
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categories; we recognize basic research in addition to the classical pure
and applied research, where pure research is disinterested and applied
research is the use of the fruits of pure research for practical ends; basic
research is pure research directed at material which is not very
interesting in its own right but which is expected to be very useful in
practice. There is little doubt that today research claims prestige for itself
because of its potential usefulness. That is to say, all research is claimed
to be more-or-less basic.1 In the classical vein this was unthinkable, the
value of science was deemed almost exclusively personal and research
was deemed edifying.
Obviously, of the many thousands of citizens engaged in research
proper, most are engaged in small tasks—which Thomas S.Kuhn has
labelled ‘normal’. And, he stresses, normal science is practical. He
probably means by this that normal science is all practical, but let us admit
that it can also be basic. The practical attitude to science is very modern; it
is at most the result of the industrial revolution, and so nineteenth-
century at the earliest; more likely it is post-Hiroshima. Kuhn is a
historian of science and so he should know the obvious fact that normal
science in the eighteenth century was more for individual entertainment
than for practical ends. This was not always so: anyone familiar even with
the mere illustrations in the literature in the history of science in the
eighteenth century will know that. This is reflected in the third edition of
Encyclopedia Britannica of the early nineteenth century. The article ‘Science’
there is extremely brief, reporting that an item of knowledge belongs to
the body of science if and only if it is certain. Though the article gives no
instances, clearly, the best instances are either from logic and basic
mathematics or from extremely common and undoubted experiences,
though, of course, some high-powered scientific theories should count as
well. Today, incidentally, it is generally acknowledged that of these
seemingly most certain items, none is exempt from doubt and revision
(except perhaps logic; this is still a contested matter). Next to that brief
third-edition Britannica article on science is a long article on science as
amusement, in which the contents of a famous popular eighteenth-
century book (by Ozanam) is reported. We would recognize today the
contents of this article as vaguely within the domain of high-school
sciences, as it includes somewhat amusing experiences with mechanics,
electricity, magnetism and the like. Probably these two articles were not
conceived of together and they were put together by sheer lexicographic
rules.
The picture which emerges from this description presents a concern
with science which is pre-critical. It was at times purely intellectual, at
time practically oriented, always with great implication for life in general,
for daily life and for peace, but with hardly any concern for the problems
and issues in the philosophy of science as recognized today. Today, many
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of the concerns of the field, epistemological, methodological and
metaphysical, are traced back to writers of the classical era, especially
David Hume and Immanuel Kant. There was a major difference between
these two thinkers. Hume is typical of his class: he was a private scholar
who was clearly concerned with the social sciences (politics and
economics, in particular), whose contributions to the philosophy of
science he himself saw as marginal and preparatory. Not so Kant, who
was most uncharacteristic; he was a university professor, who was on the
side of science, and who was reputed to be a polymath proficient in
fourteen different branches (some of which he inaugurated as academic
subjects, such as geography and anthropology). He was still primarily a
philosopher, and even primarily a philosopher of science.2
It is hard to examine this, quite generally received, assessment, since
the expression ‘the philosophy of science’ is new. To repeat, traditionally
the word ‘philosophy’ designated learning in general and empirical
science in particular. After the defeat of the French Revolution, some
fashionable reactionary philosophers swore allegiance to unreason. Other,
more old-fashioned philosophers understandably attempted to distance
themselves from the new advocacy of unreason, and one way they did
this was by naming their own views ‘scientific philosophy’. This name
usually designated mechanistic philosophy; its adherents considered
theology to be typically metaphysical and so they branded all
metaphysics evil; this enhanced their claim for scientific status for their
own, mechanistic metaphysics. This way the philosophy that upheld the
traditional esteem of reason centred mainly on science and on
reasonability in the moral life of the individual and the nation. It naturally
tended to centre increasingly on epistemology, methodology and rational
metaphysics as a main tool to combat unreason. The philosophers of
unreason had—still have—their own philosophy of science, but this is
scarcely recognized: the philosophers who defend reason against the
attack on it from the advocates of unreason took a monopoly on science
and its defence.
The philosophy of science thus evolved into a specific activity of
philosophers of the rationalist persuasion—the activity of defending
science against its detractors. This explains the poverty of the field today:
today science has no worthy detractors to combat; and no dragons to slay,
no heroic deeds.
Even the philosophers of science themselves are aware of this fact, as
they defend science not only by singing its praise, but also by attempting
to solve problems in epistemology and in methodology, and by seeking
newer and better arguments to combat metaphysics with. They do this as
a mere pious act, paying no heed to the possibility that the problems they
pose are insoluble, at least insoluble as long as they are presented in the
traditional manner and settings. They cling to the pre-critical, optimistic
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view of science in the face of the risks to the very survival of humanity
which scientific technology has originated: they relegate these risks to the
new field of the philosophy of technology (which is less than half a
century old), as if their philosophy of science does not include the
philosophy of technology and as if their philosophy of science does not
credit science with scientific technology as a great achievement. It really is
a cheap trick to admit to the field of the philosophy of science the praise
for science as the source of the benefits from scientific technology and its
great achievements, and to banish to the philosophy of technology the
possible and actual ill-effects of the same scientific technology.
David Stove is exceptional. The efforts to solve the traditional problems
of the philosophy of science, he says, are commendable even if these
should turn out to be insoluble. For, he explains (in his book against those
who have given up the traditional struggle, including Sir Karl Popper and
Thomas S.Kuhn), the struggle is the ongoing defence of science and thus
of traditional rationalist philosophy and thus of rationalism as such.
This is a charming admission, but of a position that is obviously
pathetic.3
PUBLIC RELATIONS FOR SCIENCE IS
MEANINGLESS
In the year AD 1600 St Roberto Cardinal Bellarmino consigned
Girdano Bruno to be burnt at the stake—allegedly because he taught
that the universe is infinite, so that in all likelihood there exist other
worlds like ours. Later on the said Saint issued an official threat to
Galileo. Science was then rightly militant. Today science is triumphant;
even the Church of Rome has recently admitted the superiority of
Galileo’s case over that which was contrived against him and officially
endorsed there and then. However embarrassing this repudiation was,
science became too strong to continue evading it.4 Today, science
surrounds us and appears on all levels from the sublime, through the
mundane to the abject.
In the sublime mood science is what Bertrand Russell called ([7.53])
‘Promethean madness’ and what Albert Einstein considered to be the
scientific undertaking: ‘tracing the Good Lord’s blueprint of the
universe’. In the mundane world of the modern industrialized
metropolis, the impact of science on the intellectual, political, social and
technical aspects of life is overwhelming; especially, the impact of
scientific technology is so very prominent. The abject aspect of the
impact of science on daily life has attracted a certain kind of philosopher
of unreason, whose hostility to reason is expressed as a hostility to
science, transformed into a hostility to scientific technology—on the
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grounds of prophecies of gloom and of apocalypse that should be
blamed on scientific technology, the cause of the alienation of Modern
Man. These prophets of unreason identify science with the foolish
attempt to conquer and subjugate Nature and they are confident that
Nature will soon avenge this treatment by devastation. They advocate
the replacement of the Western harsh, indifferent attitude to Nature with
a soft, intuitive, irrational, oriental attitude. This mixture invites very
urgently the sifting of the grain from the chaff.5
This quick survey of the impact of science on society that goes from
the sublime to the ridiculous, has omitted the ridiculous. This
dimension is normally absent: science is no cause for levity. The
entertainment world is as much under the influence of science as any
other component of our small universe, in its shaping of our tastes and
opinions and values and in its stupendous media technology. But not
as an object of hilarity; even as sedate entertainment it is almost
entirely confined to the juvenile. Yet they raise in a fresh manner the
question, what is science? The question seems to require an answer
that is easy to apply to what we usually call science, including high-
school science and nuclear physics and electronic engineering. This is
an error: we may have a thing and the received model of that thing,
and the two need not agree. In the literature on social anthropology,
this is taken for granted. In that literature, the paradigm for the
difference—between a thing and the received idea of it—is the
difference between magic and the received idea of it: in every society
that has been described by some anthropologists, there are magicians,
and yet (unless we deem the scientists as powerful magicians as did Sir
Francis Bacon in the early seventeenth century), we all agree that real
live magicians never fitted the characterization of magic admitted in
their society (except possibly contemporary modern society).
Magicians like Merlin do fit the image of the magician, but they never
existed (except perhaps among modern scientists). Do the modern
scientists fit the image of science?
It is the image of science that is rather ridiculous, as it is put
forward by the spokespeople for the public relations of science. This
is not peculiar to science. The practice of public relations evolved
unawares and uncontrolled as a part of the advertising world of the
free market, where the shortest of the short-term interests govern, so
that the most cynical opportunists set the tone. This is harmless
enough when pertaining to the sales of soap, but not to the sales of
the higher things in life, be they the arts, the sciences or religion.
Whoever the individuals are who take upon themselves to express
the social concerns of science, they are these days powerful
individuals and they control the appointment of suitable individuals
to the positions of spokespeople of science. The leading positions in
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this matter are well-paid professorships in the leading universities in
the subject called the philosophy of science.
In brief, official philosophy of science, the philosophy of science
boosted by the scientific establishment, is much less tolerable than the
commercials on television which sell soap and other cosmetics. They are
as remote from the Promethean madness of the search for the secret of the
universe as eroticism is from the (intellectual) love of God.6
If we grant this, and it is hard to deny it as we will soon have the
occasion to notice, then we may begin by denying that there is anything
more specific to science as such than to cosmetics as such. And the best
characterization of science that can be given is in that vein: science is the
Promethean madness, the attempt to trace God’s blueprint of the
universe, the search for the secret of the universe.7
SCIENCE IS A CULTURAL PHENOMENON
There are some immediate, obvious objections to the view of science as a
quest, and they centre on the missing object of the quest and on its trail,
expressed in the following two questions. What will satisfy the scientific
quest? Which way does one turn to be on its trail? These questions are
reasonable and should be taken seriously, but they are presented as
objections, and as objections, I will now show, they are residues from the
pathetic public-relations department—by illustrating their immediate
socio-political implications—on the assumption that there are no
competitors within human culture.
The first objection is dominant in the semi-official literature on the
matter: what exactly are we in search of? Are we in search for
information or for knowledge? If for mere information, will any
information do? If yes, why not be pleased with the information
contained in primitive lore and in Scriptures? This series of questions
looks so straightforward, but it is not. It begins well and degenerates:
what exactly are we looking for? This is the right question even though
obviously we do not know: we know what we look for when we look for
a lost penny, but not when we look for a masterpiece while roaming in a
foreign museum, much less when we seek the secret of the universe. The
question is right, but we should not expect too much for an answer:
anything remotely resembling a possible answer may be a tremendous
excitement. But look where the series of questions ends. It ends with an
insult to the competition. This is not serious; it is public-relations
frivolity—especially since repeatedly the self-appointed public-relations
spokespeople of science often find the quest formidable and even
exasperating, so that they finally settle for the mere physical comforts
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that science-based technology has to offer to the modern world. (The
leading public-relations spokesperson of science in the previous
generation was Rudolf Carnap, the famous debunker of all speculations;
his magnum opus was his The Logical Foundations of Probability of 1950; it
starts with the formula for finding the truth about the world and ends by
giving up the task, with the excuse that science is a mere instrument.)
And so, when the circle is closed and science is praised as a mere
instrument, the conclusion is not drawn but remains all the same: the
mere physical comforts that science-based technology has to offer the
modern world is superior to the primitive lore and to the Scriptures.
This is hard to take seriously. Primitive lore and the Scriptures do not
compete with modern science-based technology as conveyors of
physical comforts, but they still are very interesting and deserve
attention in many ways and on many levels. This is the end of the
objection from the hostility to the idea of science as a quest from popular
lore and the Scriptures: the quest is obviously not replaced by the study
of popular lore and of the Scriptures; rather, the study is a part of the
quest.
The public-relations spokespeople do not allow themselves to be
dismissed so easily, and they respond with forceful objections to the
dismissal here suggested: they want reason, namely science, to be the
guide for life; they want science to offer but better technology and better
education, and the two should go together (as the proper education for
the next generation is essential for the technological challenges they will
face), yet the competition will not agree. Admittedly taking the Scriptures
as a science substitute is frivolous. Yet, however frivolous the competition
is, its hostility to scientific technology and to scientific education must be
taken seriously in the interest of the wellbeing of us all.
This rejoinder seems very serious and very responsible, but it is not.
Responsibility will be served if the question of education and of the
place of technology in the modern world be discussed not apropos
science but apropos the design of a better education policy, the study of
education and its purposes. And the same holds for the problems that
are specific to high-tech society. Here we are discussing science, and as
the search for the secret of the universe, not the implication this has for
education and for the training for high-tech. True, science shares with
other domains the search for the secret of the universe, including magic
and religion. Do the public-relations spokespeople of science want to
distinguish between the search conducted in a manner becoming science
and in alternative ways? Or will the comparison suffice of the results of
the search along different lines? Today it is agreed that the results tell the
important tale: by their fruits ye shall know them. Do we know the
difference in the results? Of course we do: even the most ignorant
among the public-relations spokespeople of science have no difficulty in
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telling a magic text from a scientific one! To be precise, the semi-official
literature of the public-relations spokespeople of science is not that
advanced: only a few philosophers of science discuss magic proper in a
manner which is up to the standard of current social anthropology, the
scientific field of study which retains an exclusive claim over magic.
Rather, the semi-official literature of the public-relations spokespeople
of science is concerned to a large extent with the unmasking of items of
pseudo-science as merely pseudo, namely, not the genuine articles they
masquerade as.
SCIENCE NEEDS NO PROMOTERS
It should be granted that this is more challenging: the public-relations
spokespeople of science can easily distinguish a genuine amulet or
talisman from a page of a scientific paper, but lamentably all too often
they cannot distinguish a phony page of a manuscript that deserves
publication in a scientific journal from one that is not. This is why the
public-relations spokespeople of science are never invited to act as
referees for judging the merits of scientific research any more than the
public-relations spokespeople of a financial concern will be asked to
adjudicate on matters financial. This is why the public-relations
spokespeople of science are so pleased and so proud when a scientist
proper joins their ranks, even though they should know better. For, a
scientist can contribute to the philosophy of science without joining the
ranks of the philosophers, as many scientists often do. Hence, scientists
become philosophers only as an admission of defeat as scientists, often
after retirement. Max Born, the great physicist of the early twentieth
century, who was also a somewhat less-great public-relations
spokesperson of science, said that all able-bodied researchers should
devote all their energies exclusively to science and permit themselves to
turn to philosophy, if at all, only after retirement.8
All this sounds rather evasive, yet it is the heart of the matter: analysing
the means for distinguishing between the genuine research from the
pseudo sounds a reasonable task, yet it clearly is very questionable, and
probably it cannot be done: even scientists of the best repute are not very
good at it. Proof: young Albert Einstein was deemed phoney by many
scientists, and he was taken as suspect for well over a generation—while
those who took him seriously debated hotly the question, was he right?
The great historian of physics, Sir Edmund Whittaker, who was himself
a serious scientist (he was the Astronomer Royal for Northern Ireland)
was hostile to Einstein all his long life, and as late as in the mid-century,
long after the heated debate had subsided, he declared that there never
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was an Einsteinian revolution and overlooked the heated debate
completely. In a review of Whittaker’s book Born said, I was there, I
witnessed the heated debates and took part in them.9
To return to the items that may be masqueraded as parts of science.
These items are, among others, magic, theology and metaphysics. What
is so pathetic about all the many studies dished out year in and year out
by the public-relations spokespeople of science is precisely this: were
they right, then there would be no regular problem in refereeing, and in
the rare cases of such a problem, these very public-relations
spokespeople of science should be the experts to consult. Such cases do
not exist.
To be precise, one such case does exist: in the long history of the public
relations of science, one such spokesperson was invited to speak as an
expert on the matter at hand. It was the second ‘monkey trial’ so-called,
the court case a few decades ago, in which a judge in Little Rock, in the
State of Arkansas, USA, was called to adjudicate between the education
department of that state and a religious sect which demanded that the
official biology text books should include proper reference to scripture. It
is a priori obvious that both parties were lamentably in the wrong: the
education department was in error in proscribing such reference and the
other party was in error in trying to bring in, not the Scriptures, but a
certain dogmatic attitude.10 The judge had little choice but to side with the
education department, simply because the public-relations spokespeople
of the religious sect in question were even more inept than the public-
relations spokesperson of science who was invited to speak for the
department. He argued that the religious are dogmatic and the scientists
are not. Even apart from the fact that many individuals are religious
scientists, this is a naked falsehood: there are non-dogmatic religious sects
and dogmatism is lamentably too common among scientists, religious
and non-religious, and more so among science teachers. When it comes to
the curse known as science-education inspectors, it seems that for them
dogmatism is obligatory, though, as many obligations, it is at times not
carefully observed.11 This is no complaint about the judge: he was facing
in court dogmatism on both sides and had to choose the lesser evil. In that
Arkansas court on that day, science appeared the lesser dogma and the
lesser evil; but with the help of the public-relations spokespeople of
science this will soon change—unless something is done about it. These
public-relations spokespeople of science are not powerful at all, but they
may do harm anyway, as they cover up some powerful evils: the more
powerful science is, the more success it brings about, the more the dangers
of its abuses, and unchecked it will be abused. This, after all, is the major
lesson we learn from all science fiction, and Mary Shelley, H.G.Wells and
Isaac Asimov spun yarns to let us absorb this lesson. Except that under the
pious guidance of the public-relations spokespeople of science, readers of
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science fiction take the lesson to be mere fiction with no moral to it or as
fiction with futile moral against the abuse of magic, not a real moral
against the abuse of science.12
We have arrived back at the claim of the self-appointed public-
relations spokespeople of science that the evil of magic is in its
masquerading as science, in its being pseudo-scientific. This is most
parochial as an attitude: most magicians and theologians, even most
metaphysicians, operated (and still do) in societies in which there is no
familiarity with science so that they do not masquerade as scientific and
so they do not qualify as pseudo-scientific. Even cargo cults, the magic
rituals involving wooden copies of aeroplanes and other modern
artefacts in the hope of inducing the gods to grant them to the
worshippers, scarcely qualify as pseudo in any sense.13 To say of Moses
the Law-giver and of Jesus Christ that their theology masqueraded as
science defies the imagination. Only in response to the assertion of
Maimonides, that Moses the Law-giver was a scientist, could anything
like the charge of masquerading be launched—validly or not.14 The
philosophers of science, however, that is to say, the semi-official public-
relations spokespeople of science, are not interested in all this: they care
little about societies overseas; they are here to advertise science here and
this task includes the discrediting of the competition here. They
therefore permit themselves at times to be agreeably tolerant to theology
and to metaphysics—after proof is issued to their own satisfaction that
the parties involved do not compete with science. Usually, that is,
theology and magic are deemed competitors, and then the philosophers
of science, that is to say, the self-same semi-official public-relations
spokespeople of science, find themselves acting as bouncers for the
exclusive club of science. The leading sociologist of science, Robert
K.Merton, prefers the term ‘gate keepers’, as he deems it the less
offensive of the two; it is more offensive, as will be clear when we find
the answer, which should guide the bouncer, to the central question of
the philosophy of science: who is and who is not a bona fide member of
the club? What is science? Is there a quality of science that sets it apart
from what the bouncers consider as the competition? For, clearly, science
is open and gate-keeping makes it a closed club.
SCIENCE IS NOT SUPER MAGIC
What is science? Science is a body of knowledge; science is what scientists
do qua scientists; science is a tradition; science is any empirically involved
research activity; science is a faculty in the university. All these answers
are true and meet the question, yet they are highly unsatisfactory. Hence,
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the question was ill-put. Here it is in its proper wording: what is the
essence of science?
This is a tricky question; without entering the hoary matter of the
critique of essentialism we can re-word it: what differentiates science
from……? Taking it seriously requires the study in depth of many
competitors to science. The study of alien cultures is, of course, highly
recommended and even the bouncers will not object to it unless it is done
from the viewpoint of the competition. Yet controversy about alien
cultures abounds in the scientific departments devoted to it, and
consequently the task of characterizing science in opposition to them gets
increasingly harder. Example: is Claude Lévi-Strauss, who has created a
revolution in the current view of myth and of magic, is he a bouncer or a
competitor? He says he is a friend of science, a scientist indeed. Is he? The
question is very difficult to settle and the anthropological literature is still
struggling with it.15 Let us try to alter our strategy, then. Can we look at
science rather than at the competition and find there some clear-cut
characteristic that sets science clearly apart from all the competitors? If so,
what is it?
This is the problem of the demarcation of science as semi-officially
understood.16 The most traditional answer to it, to repeat, is that science is
a body of theories, and what characterizes them is their certitude, our
ability to prove their perfection and finality. The more modern answer is
the theory that science is a prestigious social class which lends prestige to
its ideas. These two answers are contested these days, though the first is
advocated mainly by philosophers of science and contested mainly by
sociologists and historians of science, and the second suffers the reverse
role—we have here two groups of self-appointed public-relations
spokespeople of science competing for the same territory. Let us take the
first answer first.
In the twentieth century the impact of logic led to a shift on this
matter. The scientific character of a sentence shifted: it was deemed not
proof but provability. Now generally one cannot know if a sentence
will prove true or false before it is compared with experience. So, a
sentence was deemed not quite provable, but merely decidable; a
sentence is decided if it is either proved or disproved.17 This doubled
the number of entries: not only a proven sentence but also its negation
is scientific, as the negation of a proven sentence is disproved, and the
couple of sentences taken together is decidable. Now the claim was
that though generally a sentence cannot be declared a priori provable,
it was declared that every well-formed sentence is a priori decidable.
The justification for the relaxation of the criterion of demarcation of
science to the extent of letting the negation of scientific claims be
scientific was the wish to corner the competition once and for all by
permitting the competition to contradict science openly. If the
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competition does contradict science, they will put themselves to
ridicule, and if not, we will be able to expose them as saying nothing.
The very idea that one can permit the competition or not, and decide
that they say something or not, shows that the advocates of this view
took anti-science to be passé, that they were serving science in the
supposition that it is winning anyhow. In any case, they met the
surprise of their lives when they learned (from Kurt Gödel) that even
in mathematics decidability is unattainable. In computer science it is at
times an empirical affair: many tasks given to a computer for deciding
the truth or falsity (called the truth value) of a sentence are
performable, and demonstrably so; at times the demonstration is
purely abstract, as when the time the task takes to complete is much
too long. And some tasks are not known to be performable or not. And
then, if such a task is given to a computer, then, if the computer
finishes the task, it is performable and the truth or falsity of the
sentence in question is decidable; but until the task is completed it
cannot be decided whether the task will be completed soon or not.18
At this juncture the story of contemporary philosophy of science gets
much too involved. First, there are modified conceptions of the
empirical character of science: the requirement from a sentence that may
claim (empirical) scientific status is lessened by leaps and bounds. The
exercise of the lessening of the requirement is curious: the input into it
increases all the time, yet the output becomes less and less satisfactory,
to the point that its own advocates are too unhappy about it to conceal
their displeasure with it. Briefly, the idea of certitude is replaced by
probability, by a limitation on the domain of the validity of the proof,
and by the abandonment of the very concept of proof, which imports
finality, in favour of the concept of relative truth.19 What all of these
substitutes for the idea of decidability share is the following incredibly
fantastic idea: though a sentence is not usually decidable, its scientific
character is. (In other words, though finding the truth or falsity of a
sentence is not generally assured, the truth or falsity of the claim that it
is scientific is easily assured.) This is a fantastic idea, since one way or
another science is linked to truth, no matter how tenuously. Yet it is
accepted upon faith. What accepting a sentence on faith means is not
clear, but its political implication usually is: the society of the elect are
known by their faith.
This is how the first answer, the idea of decidability, upheld by
philosophers of science, slowly degenerates into the second answer, the
idea that science is a social status of sorts, upheld by the sociologists of
science.
Can we ignore all this? Can we ask as curious observers, what is
the root of the success of science? Is there some activity peculiar to
science?
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SCIENCE IS PUBLIC AND EMPIRICAL
Our question has undergone some transformations. First we asked,
what is science? This was replaced by, what is the essence of science?
And this was translated to, what differentiates science from other
intellectual matters? And this was narrowed down to, what
characteristic is peculiar to science? And rather than go over the same
exercise yet again we should translate this into the following, final
wording: what is the specific characteristic of science? (The word
‘specific’ in the question by tradition hides an essentialist gist, but let us
not be too finicky.)20
There are two very generally accepted answers to this last question,
what is the specific characteristic of science? This would be very
comforting, except that the two answers do not overlap. The one is,
science is public; the other is, science is empirical.21
Take the public character of science first. The claim made here is that
most intellectual activities are esoteric, closed to the general public, that
entry is conditioned—whether on some natural gift or some specific
preparation not given to all or both. Is this true? If so, then by what
virtue do the public-relations spokespeople of science dare bounce
people who wish to be or appear scientific? More than that: if science is
open—exoteric—then why does science need public relations in the first
place? It needs recruiting officers, talent scouts, instructors; but why
bouncers? What does it matter to science that some esoteric groups
appear to be exoteric and other groups have esoteric reasons to oppose
science? What does it matter to science, asked Einstein, if this or that
church opposes it? If it is necessary to expose and unmask those who
masquerade as scientists, is it not best to do so by examining the
question, how open are their clubs? Perhaps the bouncers suggest that
this is not such a good idea as it may deprive them of their jobs; if so
then they are disqualified from debating this question because of a
conflict of interests!22
The second answer is that science is empirical. Now surely Sir Karl
Popper is quite right when observing, as a matter of historical fact, that
astrology and alchemy and even parapsychology, are empirical as well.
The public-relations spokespeople of science are outraged by this
observation, and they protest that the empirical evidence in question is
highly questionable, and often it is simply lies. This complicates matters
immeasurably by raising two tough questions. What evidence is not
questionable? Are all scientific reports honest and all parapsychological
ones lies? It has been reported that some people pose as
parapsychologists and are liars; it has also been reported that some
people are genuine parapsychologists and are not liars. Are the reported
liars not simply pseudo-parapsychologists? Since people who falsely
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call themselves scientists are unmasked as pseudo-scientists, and
science is free of responsibility for them, surely the same privilege
should be granted to parapsychology! The question here is not who is a
liar (this question belongs to sociology, to criminology, to cultural
history), but, what grants a theory the right to scientific status, namely,
what is the characteristic of science? Supposing it is claims to empirical
character. Are we to alter this supposition in the light of criticism to say
that it is the employ of scientific empirical evidence?23 This, surely, is
hardly helpful, unless we know what makes evidence scientific.
Whatever it is, two obvious, extreme answers are unacceptable. The one
is that scientific evidence is true: history is full of (historically important)
empirical evidence that is known to be false. The other is that empirical
evidence is bona fide. For it is undeniable that some parapsychology is
bona fide; indeed, some famous individuals whose contributions to
empirical science is unquestionable were known parapsychologists.
William Crookes is the standard example for that.
The matter of alchemy or of astrology is even more complex: historians
of alchemy and of astrology tell us that the better practitioners of these
activities were bona fide, and that some of them even contributed to what is
now deemed chemistry and astronomy.24 And we have still not said
whether all the bona fide empirical evidence should count as scientific.
There is a vast literature, going back to the writings of Galileo Galilei as to
this question. It is called the literature on theory-ladenness, and for the
following reason: if empirical evidence is based on theoretical
suppositions, then it may be false unless the suppositions are known to be
true. Suppose they are known to be true. On what grounds? Suppose they
are known to be true a priori? Then science cannot be said to be
thoroughly empirical; assuming, as we often do, that no intellectual
activity is utterly devoid of some empirical component, and empirical
character ceases to be the differentiating characteristic of science.
Suppose, then that the theocratical suppositions are known to be true on
some empirical grounds. Then, are these free of theoretical supposition? If
no, then the question returns full strength. If yes, then there is some
empirical evidence based on nothing but experience. Can this exist? If so,
do we have an instance of it?25
Public-relations spokespeople of science hardly ever stay to hear all of
these objections. Usually they or their seniors are in charge of (politically
significant) discussions and they curtail them long before they are
exposed that much.26 They have a strong technique to justify their
impatience: no matter how abstract and distant from real life their
discussion is, they sooner or later turn the complaint that their opponents
are remote from real life. In real life, they intimate, science is successful.
This success should be analysed. And profound analysis tells us that the
success is predictive, i.e. it yields successful forecasts. Thus, if we have no
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proof, we have systematic probability: the earthly success of science is too
systematic to be merely accidental; rather, this systematic earthly success
is due to the systematic success of science in its efforts to confirm its
theories.
SCIENCE POWER WORSHIP IS HILARIOUS
The discussion thus leads to the question, how come science is so
systematically successful in its efforts to confirm its theories? What is the
trick? Can it be learned? Can it be emulated by parapsychology? The
answer must be, it can be learned, or else the success would not be so
systematic. How can it be learned? There are two answers to this question,
that of the traditional philosophers of science and that of the sociologists
of science led by Michael Polanyi and his follower Thomas S.Kuhn. The
one is exoteric, and so should be able to describe the formula that makes
science an ongoing success; the other is esoteric and describes the
knowledge of the formula an ineffable personal knowledge of the trade
secret which is transmitted by master to apprentice.27 This is the worst
aspect of the philosophy of science as currently practiced, as public-
relations mulch: science is predictive success or it is nothing. If the worse
comes to the worst, then scientists are better viewed as exoteric
magicians who simply deliver the goods and no questions asked. But
the trick is to take as much time as possible getting to the worst, and in
the meantime perform the real function as bouncers. Let us review the
discussion which leads to this blind ally and see clearly that it is but
killing time, that the only serious, bona fide ideas involved in the time-
killing activity are long dead.
There are two schools of thought in the establishment of the
philosophy of science, inductivists and instrumentalists, so-called.
Inductivism is the preferred view, as it suggests that scientific theories
are probable, even if not provable. It is not clear what this probability
of theories means, and, regardless of what exactly it is, it is not clear
which evidence raises it and how. It will soon be shown that this is all
sham. When inductivism is relinquished, its touchstone, the idea that
the goodness of science is shown as it yields useful predictions, or
probable forecasts, becomes more than a touchstone; it becomes the
criterion of goodness: science, it is then suggested, is nothing but
applied mathematics; its merit is practical. Consequently, it turns out,
its merit is not theoretical but merely practical—it is merely
instrumental.28
Assuming for the moment that the value of science is nothing but
true forecasts does not yield the conclusion that all true forecasts are
desirable. The approval of true forecasts runs against the very well-
known very commonsensical facts, first, that some forecasts are
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terrible and are better not fulfilled and second, that a true forecast may
mislead.
There is no question that this is the case, and the public-relations
spokespeople of science are not in the least unaware of it. They do not
deny this either. They only ignore it. What this oversight amounts to is
clear: we are in control and there is no reason to fear that our forecasts are
alarming or that we are misled by them. This is establishment talk. The
world is threatened by destruction from pollution, from the proliferation
of nuclear weapons, from population explosion and from the ever-
increasing gulf between the rich nations and the poor nations. But there is
nothing to worry about. All will turn out to be well.
Query: is this a scientific forecast or false prophecy? It is neither; it is
cheap public-relations mulch.
To see how unserious this mulch is one only needs see the low level of
the current debates in the leading literature on the matter. The topic
common to both inductivists and instrumentalists is the question, are
there any items of empirical information free of theoretical bias? Is there
any ‘pure’ evidence? Or is all evidence theory-laden?
The onus here is on the party that says there is ‘pure’ evidence: they
should offer instances. There are none. The only candidates in history
were Bacon’s naive realism and Locke’s sensationalism. Naive realism is
refuted: the naive see the sun rise and set, and, to cite an example of
Erwin Schrödinger, the sun appears as not bigger than a cathedral,
which means, given some simple trigonometry, that the distance
between east and west is less than one day’s walk. In an attempt to
replace naive realism in view of the criticism from Copernicanism,
Locke revived sensationalism, claiming that motion is not perceived. It
is. Sensationalism is refuted, anyway, by myriads of experiments. This is
the end of that discussion.
The next discussions concern theories. There is hardly a debate
between the inductivists who ascribe to theories informative contents and
the instrumentalists who deny that and read the theories as a mere façon de
parler. Rather, each struggles with its own problems.29
The theory of induction contains two competing sub-theories, which
deal with the question, what kind of evidence confirms a given theory?
They both violate the only rule of science universally endorsed within
science since its enactment in the early days of the scientific revolution:
both sub-theories do not confine their discussion to repeatable, (allegedly)
repeated observations, but rather they refer to unique items of experience.
In addition to this, each of these sub-theories is easily refuted by very
simple arguments. A vast literature is devoted to these refutations in an
effort to get rid of them; worse, still, as usual with public-relations
spokespeople in a defensive mood, they do not state the difficulties they
struggle with and so sound arcane.
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The first of these two sub-theories of inductive evidence is the
instantiation theory of inductive evidence: a scientific theory is
confirmed by instances to it. What then, is an instance to a given theory?
What is an instance to a theory of gravity? Anything falling? Decidedly
not: a falling feather disobeys even Galileo’s theory of gravity. What
then counts? Rather than discuss gravity, the public-relations
spokespeople of science discuss such generalizations as, ‘All ravens are
black’, forgetting that when asserted, these are items of evidence, not
theories. What, then, counts as an instance? Every item that does not
contradict a theory is an instance of it, since theories can be stated as
prohibitions: there exists no perpetual-motion machine, for example; no
gas deviates from the gas-law equation, etc. And then every item that is
not a perpetual motion machine instantiates the law of conservation of
energy! It sounds very counter-intuitive to admit every non-refutation
as an instance, since this invites all irrelevancies into the picture. This is
known as Hempel’s paradoxes (in the plural) of confirmation. The
counter-intuitive character of this fact is taken to be powerful criticism
of the theory, despite the obvious fact that the theory is anti-intuitionist
and so its advocates should not be disturbed in the least by its counter-
intuitive character. For, were it permitted to rely on intuition, then the
intuition that the world is law-governed is strongest, and so it dispenses
with the problem of induction ab initio. A vast literature is devoted to
efforts to rescue the instantiation theory of induction from its
(seemingly?) counter-intuitive character.30
The second sub-theory of inductive evidence has for its background
the musing that the function describing confirmation is a unique [!]
function of both theory and all [!] extant evidence and of nothing
more—or, if not uniquely determined, at least all such functions must [!]
conform to the mathematical calculus of probability.31 The theory, if it
can be called that, is that the desired evidence is that which renders a
theory probable in accord with this musing. The musing has two
advantages. First, it identifies the vague concept of probable hypothesis
with the clear concept of conformity to the mathematical calculus of
probability. Second, it offers a clear-cut estimate of probability—on the
further musing that the probability of an event equals the distribution to
which it belongs. Except that this musing has no room for distributions
other than those offered by theories whose probability this musing
should help us estimate.
But evidence does play a great role both in research and in practical
life, the self-appointed public-relations spokespeople of science exclaim
in exasperation. Indeed, this is so, and from the very start; what they
have promised to expose us to is not this profundity but the answer to
the questions how and why? They even overlook the more basic
question, which is, does evidence play the same role in research as in
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practical life? It is more than reasonable to assume that the answer to
this question is in the negative. The public-relations spokespeople of
science take it for granted that the answer is in the affirmative. So much
so, that they refuse to ask it—or to hear anyone who asks it. For, clearly,
investigators, be they detectives or scientists—from popular fiction or
from real life—do pay great attention to minute details, as they must,
and then, when their search is concluded, they ignore most of the
minute details and blow up the others. How else can the small details of
scientific discovery grow so large as to cover the whole of our city-
scape?
When researchers—detectives or scientists—follow a clue, they
do so at their own risk. Hence, science is not as successful as it looks.
Even in fiction detectives do lots and lots of legwork that ends up in
blind alleys. But when successful, results have to be confirmed, and
their confirmations have to be easily repeatable. When the success
in question is scientific, it matters little to the practical world what
these are.
When the success is claimed to be worldly, then there are legal
standards for confirmation, that philosophers of science assiduously
ignore. In medicine, for example, a claim for success has to be repeated in
vitro, then in vivo on laboratory animals, then on human specimens under
specified controls, and then proved satisfactory by some complex
standards.32
Is this not the inductive canon that the philosophers of science seek?
No. It is not any philosopher’s stone, but the real, human, limited, at times
highly defective system. The established philosophers of science ignore it
as it is no use to them in their self-appointed function as public-relations
spokespeople of science, as self-appointed bouncers of the haughty club
of science.
POPPER’S CRITIQUE OF INDUCTIVISM IS
OVERKILL
Popper’s critique of the instantiation theory of induction is simple: there
are practices accepted in the scientific community concerning what
counts there as confirmation, and these should be taken into account
when a theory of confirmation is presented: not all instances confirm
theories but, at most, those which were expected to refute it and failed.
This is admitted obliquely by Carl G.Hempel, the chief discussant of the
matter of instantiation and its afflictions, but not openly. Yet, he is not
satisfied with the situation as he seeks a formal criterion for
confirmation. He thus cannot fully admit Popper’s (empirical) assertion
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that at most only failed refutations of a theory confirm it, as failure is not
a formal criterion.33
The more extensive criticism of Popper is directed against the
identification of confirmation with some function abiding by the
calculus of probability. This is surprising, since the probability sub-
theory of confirming evidence and the instantiation sub-theory of
confirming evidence are, of course, but variants of the theory of
induction. (Indeed, the common way to dismiss the paradoxes is to
dismiss most of the confirming instances as practically irrelevant by the
claim that they scarcely raise the probability of the theory which, strictly
speaking, they hardly confirm.) Perhaps he does so on account of its
lingering popularity. For decades Popper presented criticisms of this
idea, and it would have been dropped from the agenda, were the public-
relations spokespeople of science able to exhibit some sensitivity to
devastating criticism.34
First, says Popper, confirmation cannot be probability as it reflects the
force of the evidence and not the informative content of the theory prior to
evidence. Therefore, at least confirmation should be probability increase,
not probability. (This, he embarrassingly adds, resembles Galileo’s
announcement that gravity is proportional not to velocity but to its
increase.) And probability increase is certainly not a function abiding by
the formal calculus of probability. The point is easy to demonstrate. Here
is Popper’s demonstration.
Let us write ‘P (h)=r’ and ‘P (h, e)=r’ to denote absolute and relative
probability in the usual way; suppose a theory hl is absolutely probable
and some evidence e1 reduces its probability, whereas h2 is improbable yet
some evidence e2 (which may be the same as e1 if you wish) raises its
probability, but not much, so that
yet
Clearly, though h1 is more probable than h2 it is more confirmed by the
evidence. The objection that this is impossible is groundless. Moreover, a
model for it is easy to construct. Here is one.
Consider event E which is the next throwhof a die. Take the following
cases:
h1: E is not a 1.
h2: E is a 2.
e: E is 1 or 2 or 3 or 4.
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and
Now,
and
so that
and
and
Now,
so that the evidence undermines h1, whereas
so that the evidence supports h2, yet
Hence, h2 is supported by the evidence yet is less probable than h1,
which is undermined by the evidence.
This elaborate proof is superfluous, as is the model for it. It is merely a
tedious if striking application of the point made by Popper in 1935 and
since then generally received: probability is the inverse of informative
content and science is the search for content; hence, science is not a search
for probability.35
The more serious criticism of the identification of confirmation with
probability is directed at the identification of probability with distributions.
The probability of a hypothesis concerning a distribution cannot possibly be
the same as the distribution it depicts, since we have competing hypotheses
concerning a given distribution, and the sum of their probabilities is a
fraction, but they can each ascribe a high distribution so that the sum of
their distributions will exceed unity. Attempting to escape this criticism one
may seek refuge in the preference for equi-distribution. This lands one in
the classical paradoxes of probability. Attempting to escape this criticism
one may seek refuge in the preference for confirmed distributions. This not
only begs the question: it raises the paradox of perfect evidence: the
evidence that fits a given distribution perfectly both raises its probability
and keeps it intact—which is absurd.
How can one go on examining the defunct option that science equals
probability? Only on the supposition that science is a success story and
the public-relations spokespeople of science are convinced that the
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difficulties piled on their road to present science as a success story are
marginal.
Is science a success story? Decidedly yes. What kind of success story? It
is hard to specify exactly in all detail, but the first details are clear: science
is a success story in that it needs no public-relations spokespeople and it is
a success story not in their (vulgar) sense of the word.
SCIENCE IS MORE THAN SCIENTIFIC
TECHNOLOGY
The vulgar view of science as success is the view of the scientist as a
person with a powerful insight, a sort of a magician. Surprisingly, this
view does not conflict with the view of science as esoteric, since it alleges
that only scientific research is esoteric, not the fruits of science, which are
for all to see. The idea that scientific research is somewhat mysterious
does conflict with the inductivist idea that research, too, is open to all. This
is the idea that science is open to a simple algorithm that can be mastered
by everybody. This view of science is dismissed by Popper derisively as
the idea of ‘science-making sausage machine’. Under the influence of
Einstein it is now generally rejected as too simplistic—by all except some
zealous adherents to the original idea of artificial intelligence. Today, there
is a vast and exciting literature on techniques to aid the process of
developing ideas that may lead to discovery (‘heuristic’, is the Greek word
for this, which was coined by William Whewell, the great nineteenth-
century philosopher who was the first to criticize the idea that there can
be a science-producing algorithm). (There are examples of supposedly
useful heuristic computer programs, but they are far from having been
tested in the field and, anyway, heuristic is the very opposite of an
algorithm proper.)36
The idea of a science-producing algorithm proper was recently
replaced by, or rather modified as, the idea of normal science, so-called,
developed around 1960 by Thomas S.Kuhn. The popularity of his
philosophy, if it can be called that, rests on his conception of science,
normal and exceptional. The exceptional scientist is the leader who
prescribes a paradigm, namely a chief example, and a normal scientist
solves problems following it. This suggests that the real magic rests in the
leadership, the scientific character of the enterprise they lead rests on the
obedience of their followers, the normal scientists, and the problems the
normal scientists solve are quasi-algorithmically soluble: they are not so
simple that a computer or a simple mind can solve, but they are not so
difficult as to defy solution.
It is easy to see the allure of this philosophy: it balances a few ideas that
seemingly conflict with each other but which share the goodness of being
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both popular and useful for the celebrated self-appointed public-relations
spokespeople of science; it presents science as assured but not without
some expertise and hard work; it assures science its openness to a
reasonable degree, so that the public-relations spokespeople of science
can see a little of the mystery involved—just enough to advocate it but not
enough to partake in it actively.
What is missing in the concoction is the mystery—not the alleged
mystery of the leaders of science who cannot and would not divulge the
secrets of their craft, but the unmistakable mystery that is the secret of the
universe.
It is not that the self-appointed public-relations spokespeople of
science are not willing to praise science as the big search; after all they
will say anything to glorify it. But they will use the public-relations
criteria to judge when it is advisable to praise the search as the
intellectual frontier and when to present it in a mundane fashion. Except
that they claim to be philosophers, and thus bolster each move with a
principle, and thus render complementary compliments into
contradictory credentials.
Let us see if this serious matter cannot be approached somewhat more
seriously and without the tricks of the trade of the public-relations
spokespeople of science.
SCIENCE IS A NATURAL RELIGION
There is so much to do other than gate-keeping. Certain grounds may
perhaps be cleared. Certain assertions should be endorsed as a matter of
course or clearly dissented from, though, of course, we may also
examine them in great detail if we wish. It should be conceded that
traditionally science admits as evidence only repeatable evidence,
though we may examine this characteristic in great detail if we wish. It
should be admitted that traditionally science admits only items open to
the general public, though we may examine this characteristic in great
detail, too, if we wish. It should be admitted that some of the evidence
which science traditionally admits as true is later on deemed false, but
not overlooked; rather they are qualified and readjusted. Though we
may examine all this in great detail, if we wish, we may want to know
right now why these rules are deemed obligatory. The answer to this
question is simple: it is taken to be the role of empirical science to
explain known facts.37
More should be stressed at once: the rules are introduced not as
taboos but as reasonable commonsense ideas. It should be clear that one
may break any of these rules, but openly and at one’s own risk. The
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paradigm is Max Planck, who took upon himself a most unusual
research project and voluntarily and as much as he could ignored all
items that he could not square with it. This was his own private road to
quantization.38
Past this we are ignorant, and it is advisable to admit ignorance in
many areas and open them up for genuine research that may get the
philosophy of science out of its recently acquired role as gate-keeper and
bouncer and into a proliferation of researches. We do not know how
empirical empirical science is, though we have the feel that some
technologically oriented researches are much nearer to common
experience than some speculative studies of first principles. We do not
know how a research report is judged scientific and/or deserving of
publication. We know that some erroneous criteria are used, and that
much latitude is exercised in the matter; but more information is needed
and more deliberation and experimentation.39 We do not know how much
of science is empirical and how much is guided by general principles, by
the culture at large and even by politics—international, national or of the
local chapter of a scientific society or the local department in the
university.40 We simply do not know enough about how science
intertwines with other activities, and we only have an inkling as to what is
the minimum requirement for a society that wishes to allow it to flourish,
namely, freedom of speech and of dissent and of criticism and of
organization to that effect.
It is hard to say what other item, if any, is generally admitted as a basic
tradition.
This invites one to scout beyond the current horizon, and seek in the
past some heuristic that might be helpful. And the point to start with
should, perhaps, be the roots of the unbecoming hostility to metaphysics
and to religion that is so characteristic of contemporary philosophy of
science that induces its practitioners to undertake the lowly task of
bouncers-with-a-sense-of-mission. The rise of modern science is the
starting point, as the heritage from that noble period is in great need for
revision.
Here, only one aspect of that period will be mentioned, the idea of
natural religion. It is the idea that religion comprises a doctrine plus a
ritual, that the doctrine is either revealed or natural to all thinking
humans as such, and that ritual is prescribed in accord with doctrine. All
of these items are nowadays known to be false, but let us overlook this
for a while.
The idea of natural religion was that it is supplemented by revealed
religion, not inconsistent with it. This cannot be admitted without some
qualification on the religion under discussion, but here no specific
religion is discussed.41 The idea of natural religious doctrine, natural
theology or rational theology, so-called, is the proof of the existence of
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God. This proof is now dead. The idea of the natural or rational ritual is
the idea of research as worship. This idea has a tremendous attraction to
some researchers, including Einstein, and other researchers consider it
silly. The main obstacle in this matter is not the item under
consideration, but the idea of religion as belief. The involvement of
belief as a central item in any religion is a very strong item of all Western
religions—not of all Eastern ones. It also led to the idea that
superstitions are prejudices, namely beliefs in ideas that are
objectionable or at least not warranted. It is well-known that
superstitious people are sceptical, not dogmatic as the philosophers of
science describe them, though, of course, what they particularly lack is
the ability to be critically minded about their guiding ideas.42
Traditional philosophy of science took it for granted that the
dogmatic and the superstitious share the errors of clinging to
erroneous metaphysical systems, now better known as intellectual
frameworks. It recommended not to endorse any unless it is proven.
Then Kant proved that a proven intellectual framework is a set of
synthetic propositions a priori proven. Then Russell and Einstein
between them proved that such propositions do not exist, and the gate-
keepers decided to oust all intellectual frameworks. These were
reintroduced by social anthropologists and by the posthumous writings
of Ludwig Wittgenstein, who spoke of them, somewhat enigmatically, as
of ‘forms of life’. As far as science is concerned, they were discovered by
various historians of science of the Koyré school, and were then
sanctified by those who identified them with Kuhnian paradigms. This
is a gross error, of course, since the whole point of Kuhn’s idea of the
scientific paradigms is to prevent the conflict between the diverse
scientific systems, especially the classical Newtonian and the modern. To
use the jargon expression, he insists that paradigms are incommensurable.
(They can be compared, he stresses, but not contrasted.) The whole
confusion, and the bouncing that goes with it, will be cleared once we
notice that intellectual frameworks do compete, and that science may
both use some of them and be used as arguments for and against some
of them.43
Obviously, a researcher may consciously and clearly follow two
different guiding ideas, employ competing intellectual frameworks—
from not knowing which of them is true. Taking notice of this simple,
commonsense fact will free the theory of scientific research from its
obsession with rational belief.44 Current philosophy of science is fixated
on the study of rational belief without any criticism of traditional ideas of
belief in general and of scientific or rational belief in particular. The source
of this idea was Sir Francis Bacon’s superbly intelligent and highly
influential doctrine of prejudice: the prejudiced cannot be productive
researchers, since theories colour the way facts are observed, so that facts
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cease to act as refutations and as correctives of views, so that the
prejudiced are blinded to contrary evidence and can only perpetrate their
prejudices by endlessly multiplying evidence in their favour. This theory
still animates the pseudo-researches of the self-appointed gate-keepers,
even though it is amply refuted.45 The worst of it is that philosophy of
science centres on the problem, what theory deserves acceptance, where
acceptance means credence. Yet it is well known that we are unable to
control our credence, certainly not to confine it to a simple algorithm. It is
here that the roots of the erroneous view of science as a competitor of
religion can be found and corrected. This is not to deny that scientific
research can be a thoroughly religious affair, a dedication to the search of
the secret of the universe. This is not to deny that the religious aspect of
research is not obligatory either.
Once this is realized, the avenue is open to the study of science as a
central item in our culture and to see the interaction of other items in our
culture with science. It is interesting to view the philosophy of science as
part-and-parcel of our culture rather than as an isolated item in
philosophy. What isolates the philosophy of science from the philosophy
of human culture in general is the idea of the gate-keepers that any item
not quite scientific is beneath the dignity of the philosopher. This idea is
not quite philosophical. Nothing human is alien to any philosopher—of
science or of any other aspect of human culture.
NOTES
1 See for more details my ‘Between Science and Technology’, Philosophy of
Science 47 (1980):82–99.
2 For the best presentation of this image of Kant see Stanley Jaki’s edition of
Kant’s writings on cosmology.
3 For more details see my review of David Stove, Popper and After, Philosophy of
the Social Sciences 15 (1985):368–9.
4 See my ‘On Explaining the Trial of Galileo’, repr. in [7.4].
5 For this task of sifting the grain from the chaff in the claims of the ecological
and the peace movements, see my Technology: Philosophical and Social Aspects,
Dordrecht, London and Boston, Kluwer, 1985.
6 For more details see my ‘The Functions of Intellectual Rubbish’, Research in the
Sociology of Knowledge, Science and Art 2 (1979):209–27.
7 For more details see my ‘On Pursuing the Unattainable’, in R.S.Cohen and
M.W.Wartofsky (eds) Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, II, Dordrecht,
London and Boston, Kluwer, 1974, pp. 249–57; repr. in [7.4].
8 References to Max Born’s writings will not convey the definiteness and
decisiveness with which he said this as he explained to me his refusal to
gratify my request for his help in my struggle with the philosophical
problems of quantum theory.
9 See Max Born’s review of vol. II of Sir Edmund Whittaker’s A History of the
Theories of the Aether and Electricity, The Modern Theories, 1900–1926
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(Edinburgh, Nelson, 1953) in The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 5
(1953):261–5.
10 In the original ‘monkey trial’ matters stood quite differently: not dogmatism
but obscurantism was at issue, as the contested demand (of the state of
Tennessee) was to forbid the teaching of evolutionism in school, not the
demand (of a sect) to allow schools to teach creationism. The original defence
was run by Clarence Darrow, who would not dream of inviting expert
scientists, as his attitude was old-fashioned, as is clear from his
autobiography.
A curious example of the use of an expert in science occurred when
Faraday introduced his theory of ionization: he introduced a new
terminology and this aroused displeasure which he dispelled by reporting
that the terminology was suggested by William Whewell. Faraday
stressed on that occasion that science is one thing and words are another.
See my Faraday as a Natural Philosopher, Chicago IL, Chicago University
Press, 1971.
11 It was Samuel Butler who asked, at the end of his classic The Way of All
Flesh, how do we survive the educational system? His answer is
tremendously intelligent: he says, we owe the survival of our culture to
the imperfections of the educational system. (This explains his attitude to
Matthew Arnold, the leading educationist and educational reformer of his
age.)
12 For more details see my ‘Science in Schools’, a discussion note in Science,
Technology and Human Values, 8 (1983):66–7. As far as I know there was no
response to this note of mine, especially not by the expert witness in the
Arkansas court, whom I criticized there. That expert obviously relied on his
(mis)reading of the works of Karl Popper, which he found necessary to
ridicule on other occasions. This, I suppose, exempts him from the charge of
dogmatism: the practice of public relations is hardly an expression of a
dogma.
13 For more details about cargo cults see I.C.Jarvie, The Revolution in
Anthropology, London, Routledge, 1964, and other editions.
14 This is questionable, as the reason Maimonides claimed that Moses was a
scientist was more in order to boost science than to boost religion. See for
more details my ‘Reason within the Limits of Religion Alone: the Case of
Maimonides’, forthcoming.
15 For details and references concerning the controversial status of the works of
Claude Levi-Strauss, see my [7.3], ch. 2.
16 Sir Francis Bacon introduced ‘the mark of science’ (Novum Organu, Bk. I,
Aph. 124: ‘the goal and mark of knowledge which I myself set up’;
‘Truth… and utility are here the very same thing’; see also his Works, 1857–
74, 3, 232: ‘I found that those who sought knowledge for itself, and not for
benefit or ostentation or any practical enablement…have nevertheless
propounded to themselves the wrong mark, namely satisfaction (which
men call truth) and not operation.’ Unfortunately this was often read as
relativist, despite clear antirelativist remarks of Bacon, say, in his Novum
Organum, Bk. I, Aph. 129 and throughout his writings, from his early
manuscript, Valerius Terminus, onwards. Yet he clearly said, the mark of
science is its success: alchemy promises the philosopher’s stone and
science proper will deliver the goods.
17 The exception is Popper’s criterion of demarcation which is within language
rather than of language, so that he could afford the luxury of ascribing
scientific status to some theories and not to their negations. For more details
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see my ‘Ixmann and the Gavagai’, Zeitschrift für allgemeine Wissenschaftstheorie
19 (1988):104–16.
18 For more details see [7.31].
19 It certainly is important, both theoretically and practically, to find out as best
we can, which of the regularities we observe is due to changeable local
conditions and which is unalterable. The relativists cannot even pose this
question intelligibly. See my Technology, (note 5).
20 For all this see Karl Popper, Objective Knowledge, Oxford, Clarendon Press,
1972, Ch. 1.
21 There is precious little discussion of these two points, of the openness of
science and of the repeatability of scientific experiment, and these are
brief, as if to intimate that these matters are both too obvious and non-
negotiable. Though they appear originally as one in the writings of Robert
Boyle, such as the Preface to his The Skeptical Chymist, they usually appear
as separate if at all. The attempt to (re)unify them occurs first in Karl
Popper, Logik der Forschung, Vienna, 1935, and later in the writings of
Robert K.Merton.
22 Einstein asked, in his preface to Stillman Drak’s translation of Galileo’s
Dialogue on the Two World Systems, why did it matter to Galileo that the Church
of Rome rejected Copernicanism? There are two sufficient reasons for that, I
think, one that he was an obedient son of that Church, and the other is that
science at the time was under attack and had to fight back. This does not
constrain, however, the correctness of the distaste towards bouncers that
Einstein exhibited in that discussion.
23 Sir John Herschel suggested in the early nineteenth century that scientific
evidence is bona fide. This is wonderful but no longer valid, as so many
court cases testify. For more details see my ‘Sir John Herschel’s Philosophy
of Success’, Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 1 (1969):1–36, reprinted
in [7.4].
24 This was stressed in Robert Eisler, ‘Astrology: The Royal Science of Babylon’,
which has since gained significance despite its defects from the studies of
Derek J. de Solla Price’s studies of the import of Babylonian science for the rise
of Greek science. See [7.21].
25 See my ‘Theoretical Bias in Evidence: A Historical Sketch’, Philosophica, 31
(1983):7–24.
26 For more details see my ‘The Role of the Philosopher Among the
Scientists: Nuisance or Necessary?’ Social Epistemology 4 (1989):297–30
and 319.
27 See for all this my ‘Sociologism in Philosophy of Science’, Metaphilosophy 3
(1972):103–22, reprinted in [7.4].
28 For the difference between criteria of demarcation and touchstones see [7.2].
29 For more details concerning the fact that the contents of some theories but not
of all of them are read as a façon de parler, see my ‘Ontology and Its
Discontents’ in Paul Weingartner and Georg Dorn (eds) Studies in Bunge’s
Treatize, Amsterdam, Rodopi, 1990, pp. 105–22. (This book appeared also as a
special issue of Poznan Studies, Vol. 18).
30 For details see my ‘The Mystery of the Ravens’, Philosophy of Science, 33
(1966):395–402, reprinted in my The Gentle Art of Philosophical Polemics: Selected
Reviews, LaSalle, Ill., Open Court, 1988.
31 The demand that all (relevant) information be considered is a safeguard
against prejudice. It does not work, since it permits the refraining from the
search for instances to the contrary. In the absence of any background
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knowledge, the demand that all competing hypotheses be examined nullifies
their initial probabilities, since there are infinitely many hypotheses and the
sum of their probabilities is unity. The introduction of any background
hypotheses may easily alter this and render the problem very easily soluble.
The literature debates the principle of simplicity (John Stuart Mill), otherwise
known as the principle of limited variety (John Maynard Keynes), or of the
redistribution of initial probabilities (Sir Harold Jeffreys). These do not work,
but other hypotheses work very comfortably. For example, analytic chemistry
works inductively very nicely against the background of the table of
elements—provided its refutations are ignored, and to the extent that this is
possible. Nuclear chemistry, of course, requires different background
hypothesis.
The amazing thing is that a whole movement in the philosophy of science
evolved when a suggestion was made to study the problem not in the abstract
but as against given background hypothesis.
32 For all this see my Technology (note 5).
33 See my The Mystery of the Ravens’ (note 30). In that essay I did not discuss
the folly of the requirement that the criterion of confirmation should be
formal. It clearly has to do with the theory of demarcation of science by
meaning, presented above, which presents science as in principle utterly
decidable and the competition as unable to articulate except by either
endorsing or rejecting some scientific verdict or another. In brief, it is the
idea that a formal criterion makes the life of a bouncer easy. In a public
discussion at the end of a session of the Eastern Division of the American
Philosophical Association in Boston some years ago, devoted to the
contributions of C.G.Hempel to the philosophy of science, I said that
researchers do not require licence from the philosopher before they dare
employ a metaphysical theory in their researches. To this Hempel answered
that at least his theory of confirmation was intended to oust theology, and
did so rather well.
34 For the critique here cited see Popper’s ‘Degree of Confirmation’, 1955,
reprinted in [7.45], Appendix IX and many later editions.
35 This should be stressed. Popper’s point is that informative content (not in the
sense of information theory but in Tarski’s sense) is the reciprocal of
probability. R.Carnap and Y.Bar-Hillel have endorsed it and yet Carnap
insisted on the identification of confirmation with probability.
36 For more detail, see my ‘Heuristic Computer-Assisted, not Computerized:
Comments on Simon’s Project’, Journal of Epistemological and Social Studies on
Science and Technology 6 (1992):15–18.
37 See [7.2].
38 See my Radiation Theory and the Quantum Revolution, Basel, Birkhäuser,
39 For the question of refereeing see my essay on it in my [7.4].
40 See my The Politics of Science’, J. Applied Philosophy 3 (1986):35–48.
41 See my ‘Faith in the Open Society: the End of Hermeneutics’, Methodology and
Science 22 (1989):183–200.
42 See my review of Recent Advances in Natal Astrology, Towards a Rational
Theory of Superstition’, Zetetic Scholar 3/4 (1979):107–20. See also my review
of H.P.Duerr’s, Dreamtime, ‘The Place of Sparks in the World of Blah’, Inquiry
24 (1980):445–69.
43 See for more details my ‘The Nature of Scientific Problems and Their Roots in
Metaphysics’, in [7.13], 189–211. Repr. [7.2] See also my Faraday as a Natural
Philosopher (note 10).
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44 For more details see my ‘The Structure of the Quantum Revolution’ Philosophy
of the Social Sciences 13 (1983):367–81.
45 See my ‘The Riddle of Bacon’, Studies in Early Modern Philosophy 2 (1988):
103–36.
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7.2 ——Science in Flux, Dordrecht, Kluwer, 1975.
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7.4 ——Science and Society, Dordrecht, Kluwer, 1981.
7.5 Andersson, G. Criticism and the History of Science, Leiden, Brill, 1994.
7.6 Ayer, A.J. The Problem of Knowledge, London, Macmillan, 1956.
7.7 Bachelard, G. The New Scientific Spirit, Boston, Beacon Press, 1984.
7.8 Bohm, D. Truth and Actuality, San Francisco, Harper, 1980.
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7.10 Braithwaite, R.B. Scientific Explanation: A Study of the Function of
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7.11 Bromberger, S. On What We Know We Don’t Know: Explanation, Theory,
Linguistics, and How Questions Shape Them, Chicago IL, Chicago
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7.12 Bunge, M. Metascientific Queries, Springfield IL, C.C.Thomas, 1959.
7.13 ——(ed.) The Critical Approach: Essays in Honor of Karl Popper, New
York, Free Press, 1964.
7.14 ——The Philosophy of Science and Technology, Dordrecht, Kluwer, 1985.
7.15 Burtt, E.A. The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science: A
Historical Critical Essay, London, Routledge, (1924), 1932.
7.16 Carnap R. Testability and Meaning, 1936, repr. in [7.25].
7.17 ——An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science, New York, Basic
Books,
7.18 Cohen, L.J. An Essay on Belief and Acceptance, Oxford, Clarendon Press,
1992.
7.19 Cohen, M.R. Reason and Nature: An Essay on the Meaning of Scientific
Method, London, Routledge, 1931.
7.20 Colodny, R.G. (ed.) Beyond the Edge of Certainty: Essays in
Contemporary Science and Philosophy, Englewood Cliffs NJ, Prentice
Hall, 1965.
7.21 de Solla Price, D.J. Science Since Babylon, New Haven, CT., Yale
University Press, 1960.
7.22 Duhem P. The Aim and Structure of Scientific Theory, Princeton NJ,
Princeton University Press, 1954.
7.23 Einstein, A. 1947, ‘Scientific Autobiography’, see [7.57].
7.24 ——Ideas and Opinions, New York, Modern Library, 1994.
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7.25 Feigl, H. and Brodbeck, M. Readings in the Philosophy of Science, New
York, Appleton, Century, Croft, 1953.
7.26 Feuer, L. The Scientific intellectual: The Psychological and Sociological
Origins of Modern Science, New York, Basic Books, 1963.
7.27 Feyerabend, P. Science without Foundations, Oberlin OH, Oberlin
College, 1962.
7.28 Fløistad, G. (ed.) Contemporary Philosophy, vol. 2, Dordrecht, Kluwer,
1982.
7.29 Hamlyn, D.W. Sensation and Perception: A History of the Philosophy of
Perception, New York, Humanities, 1961.
7.30 Hanson, N.R. Patterns of Discovery, Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press, 1965.
7.31 Harel, D. Algorithmics: The Spirit of Computing, Reading MA, Addison-
Wesley, (1987), 1992.
7.32 Hempel, C.G. Aspects of Scientific Explanation and Other Essays, New
York, Free Press, 1968.
7.33 Holton, G. Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought: Kepler to Einstein,
Cambridge MA, Harvard University Press, (1973), 1988.
7.34 ——The Scientific Imagination, Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press,
7.35 Hospers, J. Introduction to Philosophical Analysis, Englewood Cliffs NJ,
Prentice Hall, 1988.
7.36 Jarvie, I.C. Concepts and Society, London, Routledge, 1972.
7.37 Kemeny, J.G. A Philosopher Looks at Science, New York, Van Nostrand,
1959.
7.38 Kuhn, T.S., The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago IL, Chicago
University Press, (1962), 1976.
7.39 Lakatos, I. and Musgrave, A. (eds) Problems in the Philosophy of Science,
Amsterdam, North Holland, 1968.
7.40 Mises, R.von Positivism: A Study in Human Understanding, New York,
Brazilier, 1956.
7.41 Morgenbesser, S. Philosophy of Science Today, New York, Basic Books,
1967.
7.42 Poincaré, H. The Foundations of Science, New York, Science Press,
1913.
7.43 Planck, M. Scientific Autobiography and Other Essays, London, Williams
and Norgate, 1950.
7.44 Polanyi, M. Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy,
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, (1958), 1974.
7.45 Popper, K. The Logic of Scientific Discovery, London, Hutchinson,
1959.
7.46 ——Conjectures and Refutations, London, Routledge, 1963.
7.47 ——The Myth of the Framework: In Defence of Science and Rationality,
London, Routledge, 1994
7.48 Quine, W.V.O. From a Logical Point of View, Cambridge MA, Harvard
University Press, 1953.
7.49 Reichenbach, H. The Rise of Scientific Philosophy, Berkeley CA,
University of California Press, 1951.
7.50 Russell, B. Problems of Philosophy, New York, Holt, 1912.
7.51 ——Icarus or The Future of Science, London, Kegan Paul, (1924), 1927.
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7.52 ——Skeptical Essays, London, Allen and Unwin, 1928.
7.53 ——The Scientific Outlook, London, Allen and Unwin, 1931.
7.54 ——Human Knowledge, Its Scope and Limits, London, Allen and Unwin,
1948.
7.55 Salmon, W. Four Decades of Scientific Explanation, Minneapolis,
University of Minnesota Press, 1990.
7.56 Scheffler, I. Science and Subjectivity, Indianapolis, Bobb-Merrill, 1967.
7.57 Schilpp, P.A., (ed.) Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist, Evanston,
North Western University Press, 1947.
7.58 Schrödinger, E. Science, Theory and Man, New York, Dover, 1957.
7.59 Shimony, A. Search for a Naturalistic World View, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press.
7.60 Van Fraasen, B. The Scientific Image, London, Oxford University Press,
1980.
7.61 Wartofsky, M.W. The Conceptual Foundations of Scientific Thought, New
York, Macmillan, 1968.
7.62 Whittaker, Sir E.T. From Euclid to Eddington: A Study of the Conception
of the External World, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
1949.
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CHAPTER 8
Chance, cause and conduct:
probability theory and the
explanation of human action
`
Jeff Coulter
INTRODUCTION
Human actions remain at the core of most serious explanatory work
undertaken within the behavioural sciences, but there still remain major
obstacles blocking an appreciation of the truly unique status of the
phenomena we subsume under this rubric. In particular, an abiding
theme in explanatory strategies continues to be the objective of explaining
human actions by invoking probabilistic causality as an epistemic solution
to the problem of the failure of deductive-nomological causal schemata in
this domain.1
Deductive—nomological explanation takes the form of the logical
derivation of a statement depicting the phenomenon to be explained (the
explanandum) from a set of statements specifying the conditions under
which the phenomenon is encountered and the laws of nature applicable
to it (the explanans). A typical example of such a form of explanation
would be: The occurrence of photosynthesis in plants with green leaves is
explained by (i) the law which states that sunlight interacting with
chlorophyll (the active agent in the leaves) generates complex organic
materials including carbohydrates; and (ii) the actual conditions which
obtain, viz., the exposure of green leaves to sunlight. The explanandum
(e.g., an instance of photosynthesis) is thus a conclusion strictly deducible
from a set of premisses which state the relevant law(s) and the antecedent
condition(s). Despite its limitations as a model for many natural-scientific
causal (deterministic) generalisations, this conception of explanation
became a model for social-scientific emulation.2
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Explanatory research in the contemporary human sciences concerning
human behaviour rarely employs the terminology of determinism:
categories such as ‘causes’ or ‘determines’ are routinely eschewed or
modified in favour of such ‘quasi-causal’ contenders as: ‘shapes’, ‘affects’
or, perhaps the favourite contender, ‘influences’. In a widely used text on
social research, Earl Babbie observes: ‘Most explanatory social research
utilizes a probabilistic model of causation. X may be said to cause Y if it is
seen to have some influence on Y.’3
Although Babbie is not primarily thinking of human actions as
explananda here, it is apparent that they are included in the scope of
probabilistic-causal reasoning in the behavioural sciences. This
conceptual move requires a serious reappraisal. There are many
alternative theoretical resources for explaining human conduct which
neither require nor employ causal or ‘quasi-causal’ constructions, and
this will be the theme of the closing section of this chapter. However, the
continued appeal of ‘quasi-causal’ models, schemata and theory-
building enterprises obscures the relevance and adequacy of procedural
explanation as an alternative theoretical objective. It is the primary
purpose of this discussion to document the logical obstacles which
prevent explanatory programmatic ambitions in probabilistic clothing
from achieving fruition. The prospects for the acceptance of procedural
explanation as a (uniquely) appropriate goal for the behavioural
sciences clearly depend upon the demonstration of the logical
inadequacy of nomological and probabilistic approaches to the project of
explanation in this domain.
I shall not belabour here the many arguments designed to demonstrate
that there are fundamental logical incompatibilities between the grammar
of the concepts of human action and the grammar of deductive-
nomological (or ‘covering law’) explanatory propositions.4 Suffice to say
for the purposes of this discussion that very few contemporary theorists
and researchers would follow a Homans5 or a Lundberg6 in advocating a
strictly deductive-nomological programme of enquiry into human social
behaviour. The issue I seek to engage in this essay is the idea that a
subsidiary form of ‘quasi’-causal explanation—a version of what is
sometimes called ‘weak causality’—can be made intelligible in the
explanation of human conduct.
The idea that causation can be conceptualized probabilistically has
been the subject of much discussion in the philosophy of the social
sciences in recent years. There are two principal positions at stake in the
field. Some propose a version of probabilistic causation as an attenuated
version of what they consider to constitute ‘full-fledged’ nomological
causation. That is, nomological causation is conceived of as consisting in
any contingent relationship between an antecedent event/state-of-affairs
and a subsequent event/state-of-affairs which is invariant within ‘scope
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modifiers’ (ceteris paribus conditions which are determinately
circumscribable for most practical purposes), while some probabilists
claim that all causal connections in nature are species of conditional
probabilities such that all ‘causes’ merely probabilify their effects to a
degree that is statistically significant. In what follows, the former point of
view will be considered most extensively, since this is the position which
has been thought to justify a range of theoretical claims about human
conduct in the non-biological human sciences. I shall, however, also make
some comments about the latter position.
Hempel argued that there exists a logical alternative to the deductive-
nomological (D-N) model of explanation in scientific work, and he
referred to this as the ‘inductive-statistical’ (I-S) model.7 According to
Hempel, we can explain some particular action/event by showing that a
statement which predicts it is supported with a high degree of inductive
probability by some set of antecedent conditions. The burden of this
chapter will be to show that this conception of ‘probabilistic explanation’
is defective, and that human actions, for reasons to be laid out, are not
susceptible to explanation by any ‘probabilistic’ account. Before we can
appreciate the point of such a demonstration, however, some historical
ground must first be covered.
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS IN THE
APPLICATION OF PROBABILISTIC ANALYSIS
A central axiom of classical probability theory holds that if any event can
occur in X ways and fail to occur in Y ways, where all possible ways are
assumed to be equally likely, then the probability of its actual occurrence
can be computed according to the formula X/(X+Y) and the probability of
its non-occurrence is given by Y/(X+Y).8 An alternative formulation
makes reference to relative frequencies of events defined in advance as
successes and failures: the probability of a given event’s occurrence
(success) is given by the limit of its relative frequency approached as the
number of trials, samples, draws, etc., increases (approaches infinity).
Jakob Bernoulli’s golden theorem suggests that the relative frequency of
successes continually approaches a stable value as the number of trials
(experiments, samples taken, draws made, coins tossed, etc.) increases
and that this stable value is equal to the probability of success in a single
trial.9 Bernoulli drew strikingly deterministic metaphysical conclusions
from the applicability of his theorem:
If thus all events through all eternity could be repeated, by which
we could go from probability to certainty, one would find that
everything in the world happens from definite causes and
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according to definite rules, and that we would be forced to
assume amongst the most apparently fortuitous things a certain
necessity.10
This kind of reasoning has come to be known as an ‘order from disorder’
principle, and it has received modern support of sorts from
considerations of the following kind. If you time the decay of the
nucleus of a radioactive isotope, it can be determined that its radiation
decreases by exactly one half every N seconds. For example, thorium C
has a ‘half-life’ (the time it takes for a 50 per cent reduction of its
radiation decay) of exactly 60.5 minutes. However, the actual emission
of any particular ray/particle by the radioactive isotope is an utterly
unpredictable, singular event. It appears that Bernoulli’s theorem
provides for exactly this sort of determinacy-from-indeterminacy
reasoning, and many quantum theorists have projected probabilistic or
‘stochastic’ attributes to the sub-atomic domain itself as among its
‘intrinsic properties’.11
The invocation of ‘order-from-disorder’ reasoning was to play a very
significant intellectual role in the social and behavioural sciences. Indeed,
Adolphe Quetelet, Durkheim’s illustrious nineteenth-century precursor
and the founder of ‘social physics’, sought to argue that while individual
social acts (such as committing a crime) cannot be predicted, or perhaps
even explained at all, social regularities can be detected in rates of crime for
a given population. The stability of aggregated statistics, and hence of
mean values, encouraged Quetelet to pronounce the possibility of a
quantitative social science according to which an abstraction, l’homme
moyen, or ‘the average person’, was to figure as the fundamental
theoretical concept. As Gigerenzer et al. put it:
Quetelet and his successors believed that large-scale regularities
were quite reliable enough to serve as the basis of science. Skilled
statisticians would naturally continue to make use of analysis to
find how crime or fertility or mortality varied with wealth,
occupation, age, marital status, and the like. But even these figures
would be averages whose reliability would not grow but decline
when the numbers became too small. Quetelet’s statistical
approach was the purest form of positivism, requiring no
knowledge of actual causes, but only the identification of
regularities and, if possible, their antecedents. Such causation was
much like the imaginary urn drawings posited by Jakob Bernoulli to
model contingent events of all sorts.12
So powerful was the ‘order-from-disorderly-events’ ontology projected
from the tenets of probability theory that James Clerk Maxwell and
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Ludwig Boltzmann came to embrace ‘statistical laws’ in formulating new
theoretical foundations for gas physics. Gigerenzer et al., again, document
the way in which both Maxwell and Boltzmann ‘independently invoked
the well-known regularities shown by Buckle and Quetelet to justify their
statistical interpretation of the gas laws’.13 Francis Galton was also
employing ‘normal curve’ conceptions derived from Quetelet. ‘Both
Galton and the gas theorists also derived their use of the astronomer’s
error law, or normal curve, indirectly from Quetelet. This is a striking
instance of the importance of social science for the natural sciences.’14 For
the social sciences, however, it was to be Emile Durkheim who most
forcefully propounded a conception of social causation of individual
human actions on the basis of Quetelet’s achievements.15 Durkheim’s
Suicide (1897) was to become the locus classicus of a newly-forming
statistical social science—sociology. The Durkheimian model for
sociological explanation exemplified in that work became so influential
that even Auguste Comte’s contribution was rapidly eclipsed as a
resource for the actual conduct of sociological enquiry. Comte had been
the actual founder of ‘sociology’ whose opposition to statistical reasoning
had led him to abandon the earlier nomenclature which he had shared
with Quetelet (‘social physics’), but it was Durkheim and his successors
(especially in the United States) who were to assume the mantle of a
‘scientific sociology’.
While it is true that Quetelet’s ‘moral statistics’ and ‘social physics’
played a major role in the formation of the idea that social conditions
predetermine differential rates of human actions, and that Durkheim’s
work on suicide clearly embodied such reasoning, Durkheim distanced
himself from Quetelet’s assumption of the intervening variable of
l’homme moyen.16 None the less, he elevated to the status of a new
paradigm of enquiry the precept of ‘order-from-disorder’ by repudiating
individual-level explanations of suicide (e.g., suicidees’ reasons as
available in, e.g., suicide notes and/or other pre-suicidal
communications, or within the terms of some purely ‘psychological’
theory) in favour of an approach to explaining the rates of suicide in
given populations, rates which Quetelet and others had determined to
exhibit certain regularities.
An important question in interpreting the specifically Durkheimian
appeal to the ‘order-from-disorder’ principle—the claim that macro-level
regularities emerge from micro-level unpredictabilities—has been that of
whether or not we must construe his resulting explanatory propositions
about suicide rates to be causal in form. From Durkheim’s writings,
especially his Rules of Sociological Method (1895), it was clear that what he
sought were nomological—causal—laws of social behaviour. In Suicide,
there are references to the necessity of producing ‘real laws…[the better to
demonstrate] the possibility of sociology’,17 and elsewhere in that text we
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encounter frequent allusions to ‘social causes’, ‘real, living active forces’
and even ‘suicidogenic currents’.18 However, many commentators select
as his central explanatory proposition the following: ‘Suicide varies
inversely with the degree of [social] integration of the social groups of
which the individual forms a part.’19 Indeed, in a paper written in 1948,
the influential American sociologist Robert Merton sought to codify
Durkheim’s sociological explanation in a classical deductive-nomological
format.20 Others followed this lead.
Although much has been made (and rightly) of Durkheim’s neglect of
the role of coroners’ judgments and the decisions of other public officials
in the ‘construction’ of a statistical rate of suicides,21 and of his occasional
tendency to commit the ‘ecological fallacy’ of inferring individual-level
causation from aggregated data,22 the more fundamental question of the
logical status of any such ‘sociological law’ of human action has less often
attracted the same intensity of critical attention. The fundamental
equivocality of Durkheim’s formulation has been masked by invocations
of what has come to be known as ‘probabilistic causality’, and this is
espoused as a more reasonable/attainable objective for the social sciences
than nomological explanation.
Recall Durkheim’s major theoretical proposition: suicide varies
inversely with the degree of integration of the social groups of which an
individual forms a part. From here it is concluded that, for example,
anomie (lack of social integration) is a causal factor in explaining
suicides. Irrespective of the purely empirical and methodological
questions of data selection and interpretation, what could this
proposition mean? As noted, Durkheim and many subsequent
interpreters conceived of it as akin to what we would characterize today
as a ‘deductive—nomological’ explanation, some even comparing it to
the laws of thermodynamics, but it clearly cannot satisfy the rigorous
prerequisites of a causal law. As it stands, it states what amounts to a
relationship of co-variation: Durkheim did not have access to the
modern statistical tool of the correlation coefficient,23 but even if he had
possessed such a tool and had been able to compute, say, a Pearson r
from his data, the gulf which logically separates correlation from
causation still looms large.
In recent years, then, a kind of ‘fall-back’ position has been developed
within the social and behavioural sciences to cover Durkheim’s and
much contemporary macro-level explanatory work of a statistical type,
whatever the precise statistical tool in use. This is the conception of
‘probabilistic causation’. The use of this theoretical construct is
supposed to achieve several objectives. First, and most importantly, it is
claimed to preserve the explanatory point of behavioural research.
Second, it is supposed to facilitate a symmetry of explanation and
prediction, construed as an especially strong form of theoretical
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objective already widely achieved in the natural sciences. Third, it
relaxes the demands made by the pursuit of deductive-nomological
explanation, the only other form of explanation which carries predictive
power. Fourth, it preserves the sanctity (and supremacy) of statistical
methods of investigation, of quantitative modes of data gathering and
presentation, within the behavioural sciences. Fifth, it makes an appeal
to what it construes as cognate forms of explanation elsewhere in the
sciences, especially in micro-physics, epidemiology and biomedical
science.
In considering the claims made on behalf of the conception of
‘probabilistic causality’, then, much is at stake. In what follows, a detailed
exploration of the logical problems attendant upon the use of
‘probabilistic causality’, as either a goal or a claim, will be undertaken.
THE INDUCTIVE-STATISTICAL
APPROACH TO THE EXPLANATION OF HUMAN
ACTIONS
Keat and Urry, in their well-known work, Social Theory as Science,24 point
out several obstacles to a full-fledged explanatory role for probabilistic
statements in relation to events. They observe that, according to Hempel’s
conception of inductive-statistical explanation, one can:
explain some particular event by showing that a statement
describing it is supported with a high degree of inductive
probability by a set of premisses, at least one of which is a
statement of the statistical probability that an event of one kind
will be followed by, or associated with, an event of another kind.25
Drawing upon a discussion of this issue by Donagan,26 they argue that
such an account conflates the distinction between what it is to have a
reasonable expectation that an event E will occur and what it is to have an
explanation for event E. Suppose, they suggest, that we are drawing a
marble from an urn that contains a thousand marbles, one of which is
black and the rest are white. We draw a white one, and then try to
‘explain’ this event by reference to the high inductive probability of so
doing (p=0.999). As Donagan remarks, however, reasonable expectations
differ fundamentally from explanations:
It is more reasonable to expect at the first attempt to toss heads
with a coin than to win at roulette on a given number; but the
grounds why it is more reasonable do not explain why you
succeeded in tossing heads and failed to win at roulette. After all,
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you might have won at roulette and tossed tails. With respect to
explanation, chance situations where the odds are equal do not
differ from those where the odds are fifty to one or a thousand
to one.27
Any actual explanation of the drawing of the white marble from the urn
in our example will have to include such considerations as the spatial
distribution of the marbles in the urn vis-à-vis the angle of trajectory of
the fingers of the one seeking to make a draw, the degree of friction of
fingers in relation to marbles with respect to the possibility of grasping
any given marble, and so on, none of which is given in the probabilistic
analysis of the draw. Hempel had assumed that there is a symmetry
between the capacity to predict an event and the capacity to explain
that event. This example shows that the relationship cannot be
symmetrical, since while a prediction may be forthcoming,
explanation is not yet in sight. Notice, in all of this, that the
explanandum is an event—the selection of a white marble. Are human
actions properly conceived of, for purposes of explanation, as events?
Was the ‘selection of a white marble’ an action or an event? This will be
an issue to which we shall return further on. For the moment, though,
I shall focus upon a somewhat different although related conception of
‘probabilistic explanation’.
Many commentators have compared, inter alia, Durkheim’s
explanatory proposition about suicide, that anomie is a cause of suicide,
to what they conceive of as a comparable one from medical science, that
smoking cigarettes is a cause of lung cancer. This comparison is made
because in both cases something ‘short of a nomological law appears to be
at issue. Lung cancers can occur in cases when the victim has never
smoked a cigarette in his/her life, and some heavy cigarette smokers fail
to contract lung cancer in their natural lifetimes.28 Similarly, some very
‘highly socially integrated’ people (by reasonable measures) have
committed suicide and some exceptionally anomically situated folk have
died purely of natural causes. Cases can be ramified: throughout modern
criminology, educational psychology, family sociology, psychopathology
and related disciplines, one encounters propositions purporting to
explain specific forms of human conduct in terms which fall short of
lawfulness but which are still displayed as having explanatory power. The
device frequently employed is to invoke probabilistic causality. A
transition is made from a statement such as: Under conditions C1…n,
there is a probability of O.N that persons P will engage in action/activity
A, to one such as: Conditions C1…n cause persons P to engage in action/
activity A with a probability of O.N. Or, if the conditional probability p (X/
Y) is significant on the basis of a sufficiently large number of cases of x-
type events, given y-type conditions, then Y is causally implicated in the
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production of X. (Whether specific probability values are actually
computed is a separate issue). A standard way of ‘interpreting’ multiple-
regressions or path-analytic models is to extrapolate a ‘probabilistic
causal’ statement of the form: a person’s educational level of attainment is
a (determinate) probabilistic-causal function of father’s educational level,
family income, etc., through a range of ‘variables’. ‘Educability’ is
assumed to be, thereby, an equipossible property. Rom Harré made a very
important but often neglected comment upon the problems raised in
trying to justify such a theoretical transition from a probability frequency
to an explanatory proposition:
It has long been pointed out (though the phenomenon has only
recently been named) that statistical generalizations can lead to
two distinct conclusions. For instance, if it is known that 80 per
cent of a population have developed property A in certain
circumstances and that 20 per cent have not, this can imply:
1 the probability law that every individual is 0.8 likely to develop
the property A in the circumstances; or
2 the two non-probabilistic laws that every individual of the
domain A determinatively develops A, while every individual of
the domain B determinatively develops some property which
excludes A, or perhaps no determinate at all of the determinable
over A.29
Harré’s argument proceeds to note that case (1) involves properties which
are said to be distributively reliable. This means that the propensity to
develop the property A can be attributed as an objective property to every
member of the original domain. ‘The probabilistic distribution is
explained as an effect of individual fluctuation.’30 Adopting this approach
presupposes that ‘every member of the domain has A amongst its repertoire of
possible properties’.31 By contrast, case (2) involves properties that are
distributively unreliable. ‘Frequency cannot be automatically transformed into an
individual propensity.’32 Statistical frequency is to be understood as a
measure of the relative size of two or more domains in each of which the
mode of manifestation of the property/properties under study is
determinate. If a specific property is distributively unreliable, then
‘individuals in that domain might not have that property in their
repertoire of possible properties’.33
Now let us reconsider Durkheim’s suicide example (although it is to
be understood here that many other human actions might be equally
considered in this context, such as, for example, raping, murdering,
behaving ‘schizophrenically’, selecting occupation O, asking for a
divorce, studying successfully, etc.). Is the capacity to ‘commit suicide’ a
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distributively reliable property of persons in any sampling domain?
Since probabilities presuppose possibilities, the question may be recast
as: is the possibility of committing suicide equally distributed throughout
any given sampled population? How could that be determined a priori?
To vary the case for a moment in order to get a better perspective on its
significance, is it true, as some radical feminist theorists have argued,
that it is possible for any adult male of reasonable physiological fitness to
rape a female? Is that possibility equally distributed throughout a
population of physiologically capable males?34 Is ‘physiological
capacity’ itself a sufficient indicator of the existence of the ‘capacity to
rape’ as a part of adult males’ repertoire of possible properties? Would
‘moral values’ have to be added in? And what about educational level?
How could they be weighted? Remember that we are not yet dealing
with probabilities, but with possibilities. The point here is surely that
such a ‘possible property’ (i.e., the capacity to commit rape or to commit
suicide) cannot be determined empirically in advance either way. It cannot
be determined that such possibilities are equally distributed in any
population by any method. A priori specifications of possibilities
undergird any meaningful application of probabilistic reasoning,
especially the derivation of probabilities for individual events. Thus, as
far as the applicability of probabilistic reasoning to human behaviour is
concerned, we confront a problem here which does not arise in those
much more familiar cases in which prior possibilities can be determined
empirically; for example, the number of sides of a coin, the number of
marbles in the urn, the physically possible outcomes of a critical
experiment, etc. The assumption that, for example, the capacity to
commit suicide under some conditions is equipossible, is non-
demonstrable, and thus a central requirement for the derivation of a
determinate conclusion from the application of probabilistic reasoning
to a sample of such cases is not satisfied and not satisfiable.
Although, as Pollock has remarked, ‘[i]t is generally recognised that
existing theories of probability do not provide us with an account of a
kind of probability adequate for the formulation of probabilistic laws’,35
none the less some philosophers continue to pursue such a theoretical
formulation. One interesting theme has been to reformulate causality
itself in wholly probabilistic terms, thereby denying that causal laws are
ever genuinely specifiable as invariances within scope modifiers.
Instead, ‘the idea is that a cause should raise the probability of the effect;
or in other words, that an instance of the type taken to be the cause
should increase the probability that an instance of the effect type will
occur.’36 A problem with any such formulation is that the concepts of
‘cause’ and ‘causal’ (as well as ‘effect’) are not given any independent
specification apart from their putative ‘probability-raising’ function.
The analysis thus tends to assume what it needs to demonstrate, namely
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that the meaning of ‘cause’ is wholly explicable within the language of
probability theory without illegitimate conflation with other, well-
established probabilistic concepts and without circularity. What is also
being assumed is the invariant inapplicability of the concept of
‘certainty’ to all causal propositions, an assumption which places a
strange restriction upon our use of the word.37
Wittgenstein’s exploration of the logical grammar of the concepts of
‘certain’ and ‘certainty’ is usually ignored in this context.38 However, a
serious problem confronting efforts to analyse all lawful, causal
relationships into stochastic ones involves the presupposition of a
causal field about which one may be ‘certain’ in the sense that ‘doubt’
is logically excluded. For example, the proposition that the probability
value of getting heads in one toss of a coin is 0.5 itself depends upon
the indubitability (certainty) of the causal effects of the gravitational
field as a component of the conditions within which any such toss is to
be made (or envisaged, to cover the possible-worlds extension of the
case in point). To use a Wittgensteinian argument, one cannot treat as
hypothetical, as subject to doubt, as merely probable, every facet of a
system or field of operations within which a probability is being
estimated.39 Thus, some causal relationships must be assumed as
beyond doubt, as not themselves susceptible to merely probabilistic
formulation: attempts to characterise all causal relations in
probabilistic terms, therefore, subvert the very possibility of
establishing a stable domain within which any particular probability
can be computed.
HUMAN ACTIONS AND NATURAL
EVENTS
The abiding assumption of almost all of the work in the field which
employs probabilistic concepts in the context of formulating theoretical
explanations of human conduct is the equation of ‘human action’ with
‘event’. It will be remembered that probability theory was formed as a
device (or array of devices) for facilitating predictions—of events,
outcomes, consequences, successes/failures, states of affairs, etc., with
numerical indices informing our degree of confidence, level of
(legitimate) expectation, etc. Its extension in the service of ruling out null
hypotheses or ‘chance set-ups’ by Fisher and his successors in the conduct
of agricultural and subsequent modes of experimentation still rested upon
the deployment of the concept of ‘expectation’. Explanation, itself, was to
be a subsequent matter of interpreting the results, using the alternative-to-
null hypothesis, given an achieved ‘significance level’ (expressing the
probability that the outcome occurred ‘by chance’ or not).40 However, the
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appeal to ‘probabilistic causation’ has encouraged behavioural scientists
to conceptualise human actions of various kinds as in principle amenable
to treatment as ‘events’ or ‘occurrences’ to which the concept of ‘chance’
(and ‘chance distribution’) might be a priori applicable.
The idea that someone did something ‘by chance’ is often confused
with the ordinary notion of someone achieving something in, through or
by their action (some (unintended) outcome, result, transformation,
upshot, effect, consequence etc.)41 ‘by chance’. The intelligible claim that
people can do some particular sort of thing arbitrarily is, in turn,
sometimes confused with the notion that people who have behaved
arbitrarily in some sense have thereby behaved randomly. However, even
the ‘random murder’ committed by the psychopath is scarcely
comparable to the random emission of a particle by an isotope: the
probabilistic concept of ‘randomness’ does not fully reduce to that of
‘arbitrariness’,42 any more than the concept of a human action reduces to
that of an event in nature.
An event is something that happens (sometimes to someone), whereas
an action is something that someone does.43 Events do not have motives
or intentions, whilst actions (routinely) do: events occurring in nature,
independently of human agency, are not governed by social rules,
norms, conventions or stipulations, whereas most of the actions of
human agents are.44 Zeno Vendler has observed that ‘the breaking of the
window’ may be either simply an event description (amenable to a
causal explanation) or a description of something that someone did.
What decides the matter is whether the case being described is one in
which the window breaks or one in which someone breaks the window.
Compare this case with one such as ‘the walking of the dog’ in which the
potential event/doing ambiguity can be brought out more sharply:
either the dog was walking (intransitive) or someone was walking him
(transitive). Vendler comments that some verbs exhibit a morphological
transformation in the verb root which marks the purely transitive
occurrence (e.g., rise-raise, fall-fell, lie-lay), and he concludes that ‘the
rising of the flag is not the same thing as the raising of the flag, the
falling of the tree is a different thing from the felling of the tree’.45 The
falling of the tree may have been (probabilistically) predicted, or even
given a causal explanation, but my felling of the tree is to be explained in
wholly other terms.
Now let us reconsider the earlier case of ‘selecting a white marble’.
This can, as it stands, be construed in at least two ways: either the agent
intentionally selected a white marble, or he selected a marble ‘blindly’
and it turned out to be a white one. It is clearly the latter case alone
which is the relevant case for a probabilistic analysis. The former case
may properly be considered, in its entirety, to be an (intentional) action.
The latter case, however, differs significantly (grammatically) from it.
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There, the agent’s action may be described as, for example, making a
random selection. The outcome of this action (and it is this which is the
exclusive target of the probabilistic analysis) was that a white marble was
drawn. The event is the outcome, and this is detachable, for the purposes
of the analysis of reasonable expectation, from the agent’s action. After
all, one could say that whether or not the outcome of the act of selecting
had been a white or a black marble, i.e., if the (target) events had differed,
the same act of ‘randomly selecting’ had been performed. While the
universe of possible event outcomes may be determinable in advance,
the universe of possible actions cannot be. This is not because there is an
infinite number of possible actions which human beings can perform or
undertake: rather, it is because the number of possible human actions is
indefinite: there is no closed set whose elements contain every possible
human action, and no set containing as elements every situatedly
possible option, even though there are preferred options, rule-ordered
options, and the like. The magician who requests of an audience-
member that he ‘select a card from the pack’ cannot determine the
possibility of his or her compliance to his request in advance in the way
in which he could determine the domain of outcome possibilities (and
hence the probability of any particular outcome as 1/52).
Because there are patterns, regularities, orderlinesses, in human
conduct (over and above the mechanistically analyseable biological
processes subserving such conduct, though not identical to it), the
failure of nomological explanation in the social and behavioural
sciences has been compensated for by invoking probabilistic causation:
but the alternatives are not restricted to ‘cause’ or ‘chance’. The actions
in which people engage are differentially amenable to characterisation
in terms of a very large set of assessment options in respect of their
contingencies of production. A given action of a specific sort may be
undertaken as a matter of rule, convention, habit, obligation,
preference, disposition, coercion, spontaneity or caprice, among many
other contextually relevant dimensions. There are many gross and
subtle distinctions to be observed between these characterizations, and
even caprice and spontaneity will not reduce to ‘pure chance’ nor
coercion to strict nomological causality. One’s expectations may be
raised about the prospect of someone’s doing something if it can be
said of him that he ‘is liable to’ do such-and-such as distinct from
merely ‘tends to’ or even ‘is disposed to’ do it, but such a raising of
one’s expectations hardly qualifies for analysis in terms of a calculus of
probabilities.
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STATISTICAL METHODS PRESUPPOSING
CAUSALITY DO NOT DEMONSTRATE IT
There are many critical treatments of the application of statistical methods
of analysis and explanation in the non-biological human sciences, and it is
not the purpose of this essay to review these arguments. Most of them
focus upon the problems involved in relating the demands or assumptive
requirements of statistical analysis to the actual ‘data’ or empirical
observations and their conceptualizations provided by researchers,46 or
upon the vexed question of the relevance to agents of correctly identified
‘variables’.47 These are deep issues, but proponents of quantitative
inquiries in the behavioural sciences have become accustomed to treat
them as technical ones, assuming that the fundamental logical
appropriateness of statistical inference in the domain of explaining
human behaviour emerges unscathed.
The transition from the original loci of inferential-statistical
applications to their modern fields of use is sometimes treated as a process
of successful intellectual cross-fertilization. The ‘fertilization’ metaphor is
apt: some of Fisher’s most important work was undertaken ‘in the context
of the practical demands of agricultural research’.48 Indeed, genetics and
agriculture were the two chief domains for the development and
application of mathematical statistical theory in the early twentieth
century. Francis Galton and Karl Pearson were primarily concerned with
the analysis of genetic inheritance.49 The founder of ‘path analysis’, Sewell
Wright, was concerned with problems of population genetics. Biological
and medical applications became increasingly common, and immensely
productive, but it was through the transposition of inferential-statistical
analysis to problems in psychology that the first link with the study of
human conduct was established.50
In the domains for which inferential statistics had been developed
and employed, ‘causality’ and ‘chance’ were two epistemic axes for
thinking about event explananda. During the transposition to the study
of human behaviour, these epistemic axes or presuppositions were
preserved intact, just as, earlier, with classical mechanics as the model
for emulation, a search for ‘laws’ had been the primary explanatory
objective in the behavioural sciences. B.F.Skinner, for example, reacted
negatively to the introduction of inferential statistics into psychological
methodology, insisting upon the formulation of ‘functional laws’
governing organism-environment transactions as the proper goal for
experimental psychological research. Rapidly, however, one inferential-
statistical technique, the analysis of variance, rose to prominence as perhaps
the most widely used of the battery of methodological devices in the
behavioural sciences.
The deployment of the ‘analysis-of-variance’ (ANOVA) technique is
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designed to show whether or not a ‘null hypothesis’ about the effect of
some ‘treatment’ variable (e.g., a pre-specified level of alcohol
consumption) upon some ‘statistical population’ (e.g., a set of scores of
measured reaction times) should be rejected. This depends upon the
satisfaction of a range of assumptions, including the possibility of
conducting a rigorous experiment in which the variables under study can
be manipulated; the assumption of a ‘normal’ distribution (bell-shaped
distribution) of trial scores were there an infinite number of such
experiments conducted, and the assumption of ‘variance homogeneity’,
i.e., the assumption that each set of scores has the same variance or
‘dispersion about the mean’. To test the null hypothesis (e.g., that the
given level of alcohol consumption has no effect upon reaction times), we
compute two estimates of score variance, one of which is independent of
the truth or falsity of the null hypothesis while the other is dependent
upon it. If the two estimates concur, then we have no reason for rejecting
the null hypothesis, whereas if they disagree, we may reject the null
hypothesis and are entitled to infer a causal contribution from the underlying
‘treatment differences’ (e.g., the level of alcohol consumption) to our second
estimate.
Reaction-time studies were among the earliest to be conducted using
the ANOVA technique. However, they posed few epistemological
difficulties: the effect of a given fertilizer upon a given crop yield is a
problem with a sufficiently similar conceptual structure to the problem
of the effect of a given level of human alcohol consumption upon
reaction times as measures of alertness. It is when human actions are the
explicit or, more commonly, implicit, focus of explanatory attention that
problems arise. Many explananda in the behavioural sciences are
thought to comprise discrete states or measurable properties of persons
whereas in fact they comprise arrays of human actions and their socially
ascribed adverbial qualifiers (often with only ‘family resemblances’
between them). This shows itself most forcefully in the area of studies of
human intelligence.51
Considering the claim that differences in ‘IQ’ (‘measured
intelligence quotient’) are caused by genetic differences,52 a typical
interpretation of the results of some ANOVA studies of this presumed
relationship, Alan Garfinkel has argued that special consequences,
often overlooked, ensue from the fact that the concept of ‘heritability’
being used is a statistical one.
The heritability of a trait in a population is defined as the
amount of variation in that trait which is due to genetic
variation. The trouble with this definition is that it uses the
concept ‘due to’, a causal concept. This causality is analyzed
away statistically by talking instead about correlations between
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genetic variation, on the one hand, and variation in the trait, on
the other.53
What Garfinkel characterizes as the ‘slide into correlationism’ is
problematic here: in the case of a society which discriminates against red-
haired people, poverty has a high ‘heritability’ because it is highly
correlated with a genetic trait, red hair:
But this is obviously misleading. Intuitively, there are two distinct
types of situation: on the one hand, the situation where there really
is some genetic cause of poverty, and on the other, the type above,
where the cause of poverty is social discrimination. By its nature the
concept of heritability cannot distinguish between the two. Since it is a
correlational notion, it cannot distinguish between two different
causal configurations underlying the same covariance of the
genetic trait and the social property.54
‘Intelligence’ would seem to be a concept of an intrinsic property, closer
perhaps to ‘having red hair’ than to ‘being poor’ on a scale of biological-
to-sociological attributes. Granting Garfmkel’s point about the
suppression of ‘the true causalities which underlie these correlations’ by
the invocation of ANOVA studies of ‘heritability’, the question appears to
remain: what is the ‘true causality’ for a given variation in levels of
intelligence? The problem, however, is with the phenomenon of ‘amount
of/level of intelligence’ conceptualized as an intrinsic property of a
person: this is not just a function of overlooking the tenuous connections
between ‘intelligence quotients’ and ‘actual intelligence’; it is a more basic
function of overlooking the fact that any ascription of ‘intelligence’
whatsoever, lay and ‘professional’, is predicated upon normative
assessments of situated actions, their modalities and their consequences.
‘Intelligence’ decomposes into a variety of praxiological phenomena. One’s
intelligence is not a concrete endowment like one’s nervous system. It is
that which is attributable to someone who does certain things
‘intelligently’, or who does ‘intelligent things’. Activities performed
intelligently are very diverse, but even if we restricted ourselves to those
activities performed as constituents of ‘IQ tests’ (e.g., basic arithmetical
calculations, precising/paraphrasing texts, matching words to pictures,
etc.), it is clear that one cannot sensibly seek to partition them into
biological and cultural ‘components’ any more than one could determine
‘how much’ of what a person says is ‘due to’ his vocal chords and how
much is ‘due to’ his knowledge of the language he speaks. Assuming that
‘intelligence’ or ‘amount of intelligence’ are phenomena which could be
causally explained (by genetic, environmental or conjoint genetic-
environmental ‘factors’), as ANOVA studies routinely do, simply
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presupposes the chief point of contention, viz., that human actions can be
causally explained.
Let us consider more closely the capacity to ‘speak intelligently’ as a
feature of someone’s ‘intelligence’. In exhibiting this capacity, in saying
something ‘intelligent’ or in ‘speaking intelligently’, a person can be said
to be doing something, engaging in the production of a rule-governed
communicative activity (a speech act of a specific sort, or series of such
speech acts) with its attendant, ascribable possibilities of evaluation
from among which ‘intelligently/unintelligently’ may be appropriately
selected as relevant assessment options. (Contrast this with an action
such as ‘tying his shoelaces’, for which the options ‘deftly/clumsily’
might apply, but hardly those of ‘intelligently/unintelligently’: the
actions assessable as ‘intelligent/unintelligent’ are restricted by both
natural and conventional criteria). To be able to speak in a manner which
qualifies for assessment in these terms, the speaker must be saying
something in a natural language (or derivative system), and this
obviously means that a constitutive component of his behaviour, his
grasp of English, for example, is a product of socialization. His range of
vocabulary and command of syntactical complexity also are contingent
upon the kinds of life experiences in a society to which he has been
exposed (e.g., educational opportunities and encouragement, level of
educational attainment, distribution of fluent speakers vis-à-vis non-
fluent ones in his biographical history, their differential impact upon
him as models for emulation, etc.). The topic of his discourse must be
recognizably of a type which can be assessed in terms of the relevant
dimensions (‘intelligent/unintelligent’) and not be one that is not
susceptible to the use of such criteria (e.g., coining a quip, as distinct
from repeating a joke: developing an argument, as distinct from hurling
an insult). Consider these features—vocabulary, syntax, topic (and many
related ones)—as ‘environmentally derived’. Now consider the
following. To be able to speak at all requires a vocal apparatus, a
functioning laryngeal system with intact motor functions in the mouth
and throat. There is a complex physiological apparatus, extending deep
into the cortex, which facilitates (but does not cause)55 the production of
normal speech, most of which may be thought of as components of a
person’s genetic endowment. Consider these features as ‘genetically
derived ’. Now, for any case or sequence of cases in which a person can be
interpersonally assessed as ‘speaking intelligently’, itself a common
(although by no means exclusive or necessary) criterion for ‘having
intelligence’, how is one to proceed to partition and weight those
contributions made by an ‘environment’ and those made by ‘genetic
endowment’ to the action or sequence of actions so assessed? Remember
that, for the purposes of defining ‘intelligence’, an ‘environment’ has
been argued to include not only the activity (activities) of the target
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individual(s) but also the evaluative assessment of others, made against
a background of conventional criteria of complex kinds.
‘Intelligent discourse’ is hardly the sort of ‘phenomenon’ which can be
analysed into discrete ‘components’ making their ‘causal contributions’ in
a linear, additive manner. Should the amount of variation between people
with respect to their ‘speaking intelligently’ be parcelled out into the
amount due to ‘genetic’ variation (80 per cent? 40 per cent?) and that due
to ‘environmental’ differences (20 per cent? 60 per cent?)? Even now to
reconsider the question is to see that its basis is entirely wrong, and the
mistake is a function either of failing to appreciate the complexity of
human conduct, the varieties and range of human actions with their
adverbial potentials, which are glossed by categories such as
‘intelligence’, or of presupposing without question the applicability of
causal reasoning to, inter alia, rule-governed behaviour. Usually, the one
error is committed pari passu with the other.
Inferential-statistical studies of the kind known as ‘analysis of variance’
have been exceptionally illuminating in their domains of proper
application, but the extension of this technique into the field of human
conduct is fraught with logical difficulties and anomalies which are only
obscured by treating human actions as phenomena of the same
fundamental logical types as natural events, discrete states, quantifiable
differences or fixed or variable properties/attributes.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The uses (and abuses) of probability theory are many and varied. In this
discussion, I have restricted myself to the consideration of some
fundamental but interrelated issues which are not often addressed
directly by proponents of inferential-statistical analysis as the sine qua
non of explanatory work in the sciences of human action. Convinced
that the conceptual or logical credentials of probabilistic reasoning
about human behaviour are impeccable, theorists and researchers alike
tend to give much less credence to alternative, non-statistical,
approaches to the study of human conduct. It is high time that this
unfortunate proclivity were abandoned: the logical foundations of
statistical-inferential work in the social sciences are not nearly as
impeccable as some of its influential champions would have us believe,
and the detailed investigation of the properties, logical and empirical, of
in situ human conduct which have been conducted over the past twenty
or thirty years in more ‘qualitative’ areas of the behavioural sciences
attest to the comparative crudity of the models of behaviour which have
been constructed solely to facilitate a preferred methodological strategy
of an inferential—statistical sort. Reifications of the kind seen above in
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the statistical study of the heritability of ‘intelligence’ are partly a
function of insensitivity to the properties of the praxiological
phenomena glossed by such categories and partly a function of the over-
extension of techniques such as ANOVA to domains for which it had not
originally been developed.
If the arguments presented here are correct, then the project of
formulating probabilistic-causal explanations is indeed questionable. The
further point could be made that it is largely irrelevant. Explanation is a
motley affair: if probabilistic-causal explanation is the poor step-child of
nomological explanation, then it is time to look again at the explanatory
project and ask: what sort of scientific (abstract, general, observationally
based) explanations are logically appropriate, methodologically
defensible and manageable for the scientific study of the domain of
human conduct?
One very important alternative contender for the explanatory stakes
these days is procedural explanation. Here, the theorist or researcher seeks
to develop an empirically grounded characterization of how human
beings produce whatever forms of conduct they produce, including their
behaviour of ‘explaining their behaviour’, of producing ‘reasons-for-their-
actions’. The form of scientific explanation here is basically a grammatical
one. That is, the objective becomes to specify a set of abstract rules,
principles, procedures or ‘methods’ (not necessarily of an algorithmic kind)
which explain how conduct is (re)produceable in its details, to any desired
level of such detail.56
Advocating the pursuit of alternative forms of explanation is not an
invitation to endlessly ‘reflexive’ self-examination or ‘deconstructive’
nihilism: the fundamental goals of any empirical science of human action
worth its salt should remain those of illuminating the nature of the
phenomena and relating any such insights to relevant areas of interest
and significance in the other life sciences. Anything less would be to
substitute for the demanding project of truly scientific inquiry the fads
and vagaries of an ideological quest.
NOTES
1 Carl Hempel, Aspects of Scientific Explanation, New York, Free Press, 1965.
2 See [8.6], 4–24.
3 Earl Babbie, The Practice of Social Research, 4th edn, California, Wardsworth
Publishing Company, 1986, p. 65 (emphasis in original). Babbie also remarks:
‘A perfect statistical relationship between two variables is not an appropriate
criterion for causation in social research. We may say that a causal
relationship exists between X and Y, then, even though X is not the total cause
of Y’ (Ibid.). The idea that a probabilistic cause is expressible as a fraction (e.g.,
the idea of something like a ‘two-thirds cause’ of a given variable) is a
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function of extrapolating theoretically from path-analytical models, as we
shall see later on.
4 I shall assume, for the purposes of this essay, that Humean-Hempelian causal
programmes for the explanation of human actions have been shown to be
incapable of coming to terms with many of the constitutive properties of
praxis. For an early, but still pertinent, treatment of some of the central
problems in this area, see [8.31]. Also, see Hanna F.Pitkin’s excellent review of
the issues in her ‘Explanation, Freedom and the Concepts of Social Science’,
[8.35], ch. 10. Some more recent issues, especially those associated with
Putnam, Dennett and Davidson and are discussed in my Rethinking Cognitive
Theory New York, St Martin’s Press, 1983, ch. 1 and 5 and Mind in Action, New
Jersey, Humanities Press, 1989, ch. 7.
5 George C.Homans, The Nature of Social Science, New York, Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich, 1967.
6 G.A.Lundberg, Foundations of Sociology, 1939, rev. ed, New York, David McKay
1964.
7 See note 1.
8 This is the ‘classical’ interpretation associated with the Marquis de LaPlace
whose philosophical essay on probability was first published in 1819. For a
thorough review of the problems raised by extending the scope of
application of the classical interpretation, see W.C.Salmon, The Foundations
of Scientific Inference, Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1966. In this
chapter, I do not discuss ‘subjective’ probability. In particular, I shall not be
concerned with the assessment of the claim that human agents are crypto-
Bayesians. For a good introduction to Bayesian probability, along with some
comments on the use of Bayes’ theorem as a standard by which to assess
‘intuitive probability judgements’ made by non-specialists, see Ronald
N.Giere, ‘Scientific Judgment’, ch. 6 of his Explaining Science: A Cognitive
Approach, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1988. For an extensive
discussion of the Kahneman-Tversky thesis about putative ‘biases’ in
ordinary human reasoning, informed by the Bayesian model as a criterion,
see [8.20] 214–33.
9 The derived binomial theorem holds that the probability of X successes in N
trials is given by: N factorial over the product of X factorial and (N–X)
factorial, multiplied by the product of (the probability of a success in any
single trial raised to the power of X) with (the probability of a failure in any
single trial raised to the power of (N–X)).
10 Jakob Bernoulli, quoted in F.N.David, Games, Gods and Gambling, London,
Macmillan, 1962, p. 137.
11 This is the basis of the dispute between the Copenhagen interpretation and its
rivals. Some physicists still maintain what could be termed a ‘hidden-
variable(s)’ view of the matter, arguing that the indeterminacies encountered
at the sub-atomic level are functions of our current ignorance of forces yet to
be discovered which will, once revealed, enable us to reason causally about
the phenomena.
12 [8.20], p. 42, emphasis added.
13 Ibid., p. 45.
14 Ibid.
15 For extensive historical documentation of this claim, see Stephen P.Turner,
The Search for a Methodology of Social Science: Durkheim. Weber, and the
Nineteenth-Century Problem of Cause, Probability, and Action, Dordrecht,
Reidel, 1986.
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16 For some discussion and documentation of this, see Steven Lukes, Emile
Durkheim: His Life and Work, Stanford, California, Stanford University Press,
1985, p. 194, n. 18. See also Jack D.Douglas, The Social Meanings of Suicide,
Princeton, Princeton University Press 1967, p. 16. It should also be noted
that Quetelet, for his part, was later to become highly critical of
‘Durkheimians’, to some extent for their espousal of ‘causal’ forms of
explanation.
17 Emile Durkheim, Preface to Suicide: A Study in Sociology, trans. J.Spaulding
and G.Simpson, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1952.
18 For a detailed and carefully documented discussion of the nature of
Durkheim’s ‘explanation’ in Suicide, see Steven Lukes, op. cit., pp. 213–22.
19 Ibid., p. 209. Cf. R.W.Maris, Social Forces in Urban Suicide, Homewood, Illinois,
Dorsey Press, 1969.
20 R.K.Merton, ‘The Bearing of Sociological Theory on Empirical Research’, in
[8.29], 87.
21 There is now quite a large, post-Durkheimian research literature on suicide,
much of which begins with criticisms of Durkheim’s methodological
procedures. For an extensive review of this material, see J.M.Atkinson,
Discovering Suicide, London, Macmillan, 1978.
22 This is the well-documented and, by now, orthodox, complaint initially made
by H.C.Selvin in his well-known paper, ‘Durkheim’s Suicide and Problems of
Empirical Research’, American Journal of Sociology 63 (1958). 607–19; repr. as
rev. in R.A.Nisbet (ed) Emile Durkheim, Prentice-Hall Englewood Cliffs, NJ,
1965.
23 This is something noted by Selvin in his critical discussion in Nisbet (ed.),
ibid., p. 113.
24 [8.29], 2nd edn.
25 Ibid., p. 12.
26 Alan Donagan, ‘The Popper-Hempel Model Reconsidered’ in W.H.Dray (ed.)
Philosophical Analysis and History, New York, Harper and Row, 1966. See Paul
Humphreys, ‘Why Probability Values Are Not Explanatory’ in The Chances of
Explanation, New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1989, pp. 109–17, for a
more recent statement of this position.
27 Ibid., p. 133.
28 A great deal has been made of these ‘shortcomings’ in the popular debate
about smoking and its relationship to lung cancer, but I do not wish to be
understood here as giving credence to any kind of principled scepticism
about the possibility of a strong, causal relation. Even though it is true that
the precise causal mechanism involved in the generation of cancerous
tumours in lung tissue by the nitrites discovered in cigarette smoke has not
yet been determined, the claim for a causal relationship of a nomological
kind is still a reasonable hypothesis. The problem arises because of the
complexity of the scope modifiers required to buttress the strong
nomological claim. That lung cancers can occur in the absence of
carcinogenic smoke inhalation only shows that this disease can have more
than one kind of cause: it does nothing to limit the generalization that
smoking causes lung cancer. The problem with the invocation of
‘probabilistic causal statements’ as ‘explanations’ in this domain is precisely
that it might operate to foreclose the search for genuine causal mechanisms
and hence for genuine causal-explanatory propositions. This presupposes,
of course, that the domain within which such a type of explanation is being
sought is an appropriate one for such a search. In the case of the smoking/
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cancer relationship, all of the evidence points in that direction. This is not
always the case, however.
29 Rom Harré, ‘Accounts, Actions and Meanings: The Practice of Participatory
Psychology’ in M.Brenner et al. (eds) The Social Contexts of Method New York St
Martin’s Press, 1978, pp. 53–4. It should be noted here that Harré’s use of ‘law’
in the description of the first conclusion carries no causal implication, and the
passage might be paraphrased into the generalization: for every individual in
the population sampled there is a probability of 0.8 that he/she will develop
property A under conditions C, or: there is an 80 per cent chance that he or she
will develop property A under conditions C.
30 Ibid., p. 54.
31 Ibid., emphasis added.
32 Ibid., emphasis added.
33 Ibid.
34 I owe this example to Tim Costelloe.
35 John L.Pollock, ‘Nomic Probability’ in Peter A.French et al. (eds) Midwest
Studies in Philosophy, vol. IX, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press,
1984, p. 177.
36 John Dupré, ‘Probabilistic Causality Emancipated’, in Peter A.French et al.
(eds), op. cit., p. 169.
37 For a more technical discussion of these difficulties, see Ellery Eells,
Probabilistic Causality, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 1991.
38 L.Wittgenstein, On Certainty, G.E.M.Anscombe and G.H.von Wright (eds)
Oxford, Blackwell, 1969.
39 Ibid. para. 105.
40 There is a long tradition in the behavioural sciences of insisting upon a
significance level of at least 0.05 for results derived from the use of the
ANOVA technique as a prerequisite for serious consideration and/or
publication. For some critical commentaries upon this practice within the
social sciences themselves, see, inter alia, J.M.Skipper jnr., A.L.Guenther and
G.Nass, ‘The Sacredness of .05’, The American Sociologist 2 (1967):16–18 and
R.P.Carver, ‘The Case Against Statistical Significance Testing’, Harvard
Educational Review 48 (1978):378–99.
41 Part of the difficulty here was noticed by Joel Feinberg who remarked that
‘upshots’ are sometimes ascribed to persons with the use of singular but
complex verbs, such as: ‘he frightened him’, ‘she persuaded you’, ‘they
startled her’, etc. This can lead to failures in distinguishing between actions
and other things ‘done’ by people. A parallel confusion would be to imagine
that ‘he slept soundly’, being something that he ‘did’, was an action he
undertook. See the treatment of these issues in his ‘Action and Responsibility’
in Alan R.White (ed.) The Philosophy of Action, Oxford, Oxford University
Press, 1977. Interestingly, J.L.Austin’s categozry of ‘perlocutionary acts’
appears to suffer from such a conflation of act/upshot, or action/
consequence.
42 For an event to be ‘random’ in the terms of probability theory is for it to
be equally as likely to occur as any other. As Signorile has remarked, ‘what
we discover at work here is the round-robin of using “random” to arrive
at the meaning of equiprobability, and equiprobability to arrive at the
meaning of “random”’ (Vito Signorile, ‘Buridan’s Ass: The Statistical
Rhetoric of Science and the Problem of Equiprobability’ in H.Simon (ed.)
Rhetoric in the Human Sciences, Newbury Park, California, Sage, 1989, p.
79. Signorile quotes M.G. Kendal and W.R.Buckland (from their
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Dictionary of Statistical Terms, New York, Hafner, 1960) as insisting that:
‘Ordinary, haphazard or seemingly purposeless choice is generally
insufficient to guarantee randomness when carried out by human beings
and devices’. And he adds: ‘What the statistician is trying to guarantee is
strict equality of opportunity. We all know that this just doesn’t happen
by chance’ (Ibid.).
43 Bearing in mind, of course, the caveats in the preceding footnote. Of course, on
occasion we can speak of someone’s doing something as an ‘event’ (think of
one’s child’s production of his first word, or of the delivery of an historic
speech, etc.). However, these ‘events’ have a different logical status from
‘events-in-nature’.
44 This point is worth directing against extrapolating from behaviouristic
studies of the conditional probabilities of ‘responses’ given specific stimuli
and conditioning histories to the domain of human actions. Most actions
are not properly construable as ‘responses’ to anything, and, when they are
so construable, they cannot be specified in properly behaviouristic terms.
How could one analyse, for example, the human action of ‘answering a
question’ (which surely would qualify as a sort of ‘response’) into bio-
behavioural event sequences alone? There are no context-free indicators in
the stream of speech which alone specify an utterance as an ‘answer to a
question’.
45 Zeno Vendler, ‘Agency and Causation’, in Peter A.French et al. (eds), op. cit., p.
371. See note 35.
46 An excellent review of the issues raised by dependent/independent-
variable analysis, especially the Lazarsfeldian statistical programme in
sociology, is provided by Douglas Benson and John A.Hughes in their
chapter, ‘Method: Evidence and Inference’ in [8.13]. For a discussion of a
range of issues involved in implementing quantitative strategies of
sociological inquiry, especially as they bear upon the problem of data
representation, see Stanley Lieberson, Making It Count, Berkeley, University
of California Press, 1985.
47 On this issue, Herbert Blumer’s classic discussion remains unsurpassed: see
his ‘Sociological Analysis and the “Variable”’ in his Symbolic Interactionism:
Perspective and Method, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice-Hall, 1967.
48 Donald A.MacKenzie, Statistics in Britain 1865–1930 Edinburgh, Edinburgh
University Press, 1981, p. 211.
49 MacKenzie’s outstanding study (Ibid.) is a rich source of documentation of the
stimuli which powered both the initiatives and the disputes characteristic of
the developing field of inferential statistics. Especially interesting is his
attempt to relate these directly to the growth of the ‘eugenics’ ideology of
human inheritance and its internal controversies.
50 See Gerd Gigerenzer et al., ‘The New Tools’ in [8.20], 205–11.
51 I have discussed this issue elsewhere. See my ‘Intelligence as a Natural
Kind’ in Rethinking Cognitive Theory, London, Macmillan, and New York, St
Martin’s Press, 1983 and ‘Cognition in an Ethnomethodological Mode’ in
[8.13], 190–2.
52 It is worth noting at the outset that ‘IQ’ scores themselves are a function of
tests:
so constructed that the frequency distribution of test scores in the
reference population conforms as closely as possible to a normal
distribution…centred on the value of 100 and having a half-width or
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standard deviation (the square root of the variance) of 15 points. To
call IQ a measure of intelligence conforms neither to ordinary
educated usage nor to elementary logic.
(David Layzer, ‘Science or Superstition? A Physical Scientist Looks at the I.Q.
Controversy’ in N.J.Block and Gerald Dworkin (eds) The I.Q. Controversy,
New York, Pantheon Books, 1976, p. 212)
53 [8.19], 119.
54 Ibid., pp. 119–20. Emphasis in original.
55 I mean this in the sense in which my having legs enables me to walk, but my
having legs does not cause me to walk (or run, hop, etc.).
56 For a representative collection of founding papers in the area of social science
called ‘ethnomethodology’, see my edited volume Ethnomethodological
Sociology, London, Edward Elgar, 1990. Perhaps the most important
contributions to this area of enquiry after Harold Garfinkel’s originating
work have been the studies of Harvey Sacks. See Gail Jefferson (ed.) Lectures
on Conversation by Harvey Sacks, vols 1 and 2, Oxford Blackwell, 1992. This set
is perhaps misnamed, however: Sacks’s investigations ranged over modes of
human (largely communicative) praxis broader than those glossed by the
category ‘conversation’.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
8.1 Anderson, R.J., Hughes, J.A. and Sharrock, W.W. Philosophy and the
Human Sciences, London, Groom Helm, 1986.
8.2 Apel, K-O. Analytic Philosophy of Language and the Geisteswissenschaften,
trans. H.Holstelilie, Dordrecht, Reidel, 1967.
8.3 Benn, S. and Mortimore, G. (eds) Rationality and the Social Sciences,
London, Routledge, 1976.
8.4 Benton, T. Philosophical Foundations of the Three Sociologies, London,
Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977.
8.5 Bernstein, R.J. Praxis and Action, London, Duckworth, 1972.
8.6 ——The Restructuring of Social and Political Theory, Pennsylvania,
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1978.
8.7 Bhaskar, R. A Realist Theory of Science, Leeds, Leeds Books, 1975.
8.8 ——The Possibility of Naturalism, Hassocks, Harvester Press, 1979.
8.9 Block, N. (ed.) Readings in the Philosophy of Psychology, vols, 1 and 2,
Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1980.
8.10 Borger, R. and Cioffi, F. (eds) Explanation in the Behavioral Sciences,
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1970.
8.11 Brodbeck, M. (ed.) Readings in the Philosophy of the Social Sciences, New
York, Macmillan, 1968.
8.12 Brown, R. Explanation in Social Science, London, Routledge and Kegan
Paul, 1963.
8.13 Button, G. (ed.) Ethnomethodology and the Human Sciences, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1991.
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8.14 Care, N.S. and Landesman, C. (eds) Readings in the Theory of Action,
Bloomington, Ind., Indiana University Press, 1968.
8.15 Cicourel, A.V. Method and Measurement in Sociology, New York, Free
Press, 1964.
8.16 Coulter, J. The Social Construction of Mind: Studies in Ethnomethodology
and Linguistic Philosophy, London, Macmillan, (1979), 1987.
8.17 Dallmayr, F. and McCarthy, T. (eds) Understanding and Social Inquiry,
Notre Dame, University of Notre Dame Press, 1977.
8.18 Emmet, D.M. and Maclntyre, A. (eds) Sociological Theory and
Philosophical Analysis, London, Macmillan, 1970.
8.19 Garfinkel, A. Forms of Explanation, London, Yale University Press, 1981.
8.20 Gigerenzer, G., Swijtink, Z., Porter, T., Daston, L., Beatty, J. and
Kruger, L. The Empire of Chance. How Probability Changed Science
and Everyday Life, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
1989.
8.21 Haan, N. et al. (eds) Social Science as Moral Inquiry, New York, Columbia
University Press, 1983.
8.22 Halfpenny, P. Positivism and Sociology: Explaining Social Life, London,
George Allen and Unwin, 1982.
8.23 Harré, R. Social Being, Oxford, Blackwell, 1979.
8.24 Harré, R. and Secord, P. The Explanation of Social Behavior, Totowa, N.J.,
Littlefield Adams, 1973.
8.25 Hollis, M. Models of Man: Philosophical Thoughts on Social Action,
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1977.
8.26 Hollis, M. and Lukes, S. Rationality and Relativism, Oxford, Basil
Blackwell, 1982.
8.27 Jarvie, I.C. The Revolution in Anthropology, Chicago, Henry Regnery,
1967.
8.28 Kauffmann, F. Methodology in the Social Sciences, London, Oxford
University Press, 1944.
8.29 Keat, R.N. and Urry, J.R. Social Theory as Science, London, Routledge
and Kegan Paul, 1975 (2nd edn 1982).
8.30 Laslett, P. and Runciman, W.G. (eds) Philosophy, Politics and
Society, vol. II, Oxford, Blackwell, 1962; vol. III, Oxford,
Blackwell, 1967.
8.31 Louch, A.R. Explanation and Human Action, Oxford, Blackwell, 1966.
8.32 Macdonald, G. and Pettit, P. Semantics and Social Science, London,
Routledge, 1981.
8.33 Natanson, M. (ed.) Philosophy of the Social Sciences, New York, Random
House, 1963.
8.34 O’Neill, J. (ed.) Modes of Individualism and Collectivism, London,
Heinemann, 1973.
8.35 Pitkin, H.F. Wittgenstein and Justice: On the Significance of Ludwig
Wittgenstein for Social and Political Thought, Berkeley, University of
California Press, 1972.
8.36 Popper, K.R. The Poverty of Historicism, London, Routledge and Kegan
Paul, 1961 (1st edn 1957).
8.37 Putnam, H. Meaning and the Moral Sciences, Boston, Routledge, 1978.
8.38 Rudner, R.S. Philosophy of Social Science, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,
Prentice-Hall, 1966.
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8.39 Ryan, A. The Philosophy of the Social Sciences, London, Macmillan, 1970.
8.40 ——(ed.) The Philosophy of Social Explanation, London, Oxford
University Press, 1973.
8.41 Schutz, A. Collected Papers, vols. I and II. Evanston, Northwestern
University Press (1966), 1971.
8.42 ——The Phenomenology of the Social World, trans. G.Walsh and
F.Lehnert, London, Heinemann, 1972 (1st English edn., Evanston,
Northwestern University Press, 1967).
8.43 Schwayder, D. The Stratification of Behaviour, London, Routledge &
Kegan Paul, 1965.
8.44 Skinner, Q. (ed.) The Return of Grand Theory in the Human Sciences,
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1985.
8.45 Taylor, C. The Explanation of Behaviour, London, Routledge and Kegan
Paul, 1964.
8.46 Taylor, R. Action and Purpose, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 1966.
8.47 Truzzi, M. (ed.) Verstehen: Subjective Understanding in the Social Sciences,
New York, Addison-Wesley, 1974.
8.48 von Wright, G.H. Explanation and Understanding, Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell
University Press, 1971.
8.49 Weber, M. The Methodology of the Social Sciences, Glencoe, Ill., Free Press,
1949.
8.50 White, A.R. (ed.) The Philosophy of Action, Oxford, Oxford University
Press, 1968.
8.51 Wilson, B.R. (ed.) Rationality, Oxford, Blackwell, 1970.
8.52 Winch, P. The Idea of a Social Science and Its Relation to Philosophy,
London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1958 (New edn 1988).
8.53 ——Ethics and Action, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972.
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CHAPTER 9
Cybernetics
K.M.Sayre
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Cybernetics was inaugurated in the 1940s expressly as a field of
interdisciplinary research, in reaction to the specialization that already
had begun to encumber the established sciences. Chief among the
disciplines initially involved were mathematics (represented by
N.Wiener, the leader of the movement), neurophysiology (W.Cannon,
A.Rosenbleuth, later W.McCulloch), and control engineering (J.Bigelow).
The interdisciplinary base of the group was soon expanded to include
mathematical logic (W.H.Pitts), automaton theory (J.von Neumann),
psychology (K.Lewin) and socioeconomics (O.Morgenstern). While
activities of the group at first were centred around Harvard and MIT, its
subsequent expansion led to several meetings at other locations along the
northeastern seaboard. Notable among these was a conference on
teleology and purpose held in New York in 1942 under the auspices of the
Josiah Macy Foundation (followed by other meetings under those
auspices resuming in 1946), and a meeting on the design of computing
machinery held in Princeton in 1944. The role of these early meetings was
like that of a community forum, allowing participants to share insights
into common problems and jointly to explore novel means of resolution.
Need for a forum of this sort arose first in connection with problems
being studied by Wiener and Bigelow in the design of mechanisms for
controlling artillery directed against fast-moving aircraft, which
Rosenbleuth saw to be similar to problems he had been studying in the
erratic control of goal-directed motor behaviour in human patients. The
topic of feedback processes (see below) on which the group
subsequently focused attention thus arose from a comparative study of
biological and artifactual control systems. Invariably associated with
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problems in the design of effective control systems are problems of
communicating data to the system on which its corrective responses can
be based, and of communicating these responses to the appropriate
effector mechanisms. In the biological organism these communication
functions are served by the afferent and the efferent nervous systems,
respectively, parallel to the radar and the aiming mechanisms of the
anti-aircraft battery. This joint emphasis upon communication and
control systems accounts for the somewhat inelegant subtitle of
Wiener’s seminal book: Cybernetics, or Control and Communication in the
Animal and the Machine ([9.5]).
The name ‘cybernetics’, chosen by Wiener for this new field of study,
derives from the Greek kubern%t%s, meaning steersman or pilot. Inasmuch
as ‘governor’ derives (via the Latin gubernare) from the same root,
cybernetics was provided with a ready-made technological ancestry,
beginning with James Watt’s invention in the late eighteenth century of
devices (called ‘governors’) regulating the rotational speed of steam
engines. Political antecedents can be traced back to Plato, who several
times in the Republic and the Statesman likened the leader of a well-run
political order to the kubern%t%s of a ship. A recognizably philosophic
lineage also goes back to Plato, with his reference in the Phaedrus (247C7–
8) to reason as the kubern%t%s of the soul (prefiguring the Phi Beta Kappa
motto philosophia bion kubern%t%s—‘philosophy the guide of life’).
Wiener’s interest in technical problems of communication had been
anticipated by H.Nyquist and R.Hartley, progenitors of the statistical
concept of information. Despite Wiener’s having numbered C.Shannon
among his original group, contributions to this area after publication of
the latter’s article ‘The Mathematical Theory of Communication’ ([9.16])
tended to be categorized under the title ‘communication theory’ (or
‘information theory’) rather than ‘cybernetics’. Another emerging field of
research in which cybernetics was initially involved, but soon suffered
loss of name-recognition, was the theory of computing machinery.
Although Wiener was a key contributor, along with V.Bush (MIT),
H.Aiken (Harvard) and J.von Neumann (Princeton), to planning sessions
leading to the construction of the first electronic digital computers, he
remained more interested in possible neurological parallels with these
mechanisms than in their logical design. Subsequent contributions to the
field of digital computation owes relatively little to its broadly cybernetic
origin.
Cybernetics’ early emphasis upon functional parallels between
biological and mechanical control systems soon led, in industrial circles,
to its identification with factory automation and other forms of robotics.
In academic circles, by contrast, cybernetics came to be associated with the
then arcane field of artificial intelligence (AI), which took its start as part
of an effort to reduce human involvement in the large-scale computer-
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based air-defence systems under development at MIT’s Lincoln
Laboratory in the 1950s. Key contributors to AI at this early stage were
O.Selfridge, a younger member of Wiener’s original group, along with
M.Minsky and S.Papert, all of MIT. Philosophers who became involved
with AI through their association with MIT in the 1950s included
H.Dreyfus, who was generally critical of the enterprise, and K.Sayre, who
saw potential in AI as a new approach to traditional problems in the
philosophy of mind. The first institutional centre for combined research in
philosophy and AI was established by the latter in the early 1960s at the
University of Notre Dame.
Despite its history of involvement with technological developments,
the major spokesmen of cybernetics from Wiener onward have been
explicitly concerned with its broader philosophic implications. The
following discussion treats both its philosophic antecedents and its
potential for further philosophic contributions. Remarks on the current
interaction between AI and cybernetics are reserved for the final section
below.
BASIC CONCEPTS
Philosophy before Plato was marked by a series of attempts to find a small
set of basic principles in terms of which the manifest variety of the
observable world could be understood as coherently integrated.
Cybernetics returns to this task with a set of explanatory concepts based
upon the presence of variety itself. Primary among these are the concepts
of feedback, of entropy and of information.
Feedback
Any operating system functions within a variable environment with
which it interacts through its input and output couplings. Feedback
occurs whenever variation at the output works upon the environment in
such a fashion as to produce a corresponding variation at the input of the
system as well. Of primary concern to cybernetics are two kinds of
feedback pertaining specifically to deviation from a stable state of the
operating system. Positive feedback occurs when deviation from a stable
state produces outputs that lead to yet further deviation. An example is an
increase in membership of an interbreeding population which produces
an even greater increase in subsequent generations. Feedback of this sort
is labelled ‘positive’ because it tends to increase deviation from stability of
the system in which it occurs. Negative feedback occurs, by contrast,
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when momentary deviation from a stable state leads to inputs that
counteract further deviation. Common examples of negative feedback are
the operations of a thermostat to maintain a steady temperature within an
enclosure, and the subtle shifts in bodily posture by which a skier
maintains balance on a downhill run.
Types of negative feedback may be further differentiated with respect
to the bearing of the regulatory mechanisms that maintain a system in a
stable mode of operation. Homeostasis is a type of feedback by which
deviation from stability is counteracted by adjustments internal to the
system itself. Among familiar forms of homeostasis in biological
organisms are mechanisms regulating body temperature and chemical
composition of the blood. Another type of negative feedback is
exemplified by the heat-seeking missile that changes direction with a
manoeuvring target, and by the daisy that aims its blossom to catch the
full light of the sun. Feedback of this latter sort has been labelled
‘heterotelic’, for its role in adjusting the system’s external relations to
factors in its operating environment.
All organic and most mechanical systems incorporate variables that
must be restricted to a narrow range of values if the system is to remain
operational. A mammal will soon die, for example, if the oxygen
content of its blood falls below a certain level, just as a reciprocating
engine will soon freeze if it loses oil pressure. Negative feedback may
be conceived generally as a type of regulatory restraint by which the
values of a system’s crucial variables are maintained within a range
compatible with sustained operation. The central role of negative
feedback in the economy of an operating system, to paraphrase Ashby
([9.7], 199), thus is to block the transmission of excessive variety to a
system’s protected variables. An important result of feedback
regulation is to maintain the system at a state of low entropy relative to
its operating environment.
Entropy
As originally defined by Clausius, entropy measured the proportion of
total energy within an isolated system that is available for doing useful
work. If part of a system is significantly hotter than another part (e.g., a
steam chamber), then work can be done as heat passes from the hotter to
the colder part (e.g., the pistons of a steam engine). If all parts of the
system are at approximately the same temperature, however, the heat
energy within the system is incapable of accomplishing useful work.
According to the first law of thermodynamics, the total energy within a
closed system remains unchanged through time. But as its energy
available for work becomes expended through irreversible physical
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processes (e.g., discharge of steam into the pistons), its capacity to
produce additional work progressively decreases. This means that the
entropy of the system, in Clausius’s sense, progressively increases. The
second law of thermodynamics, originally stating that the energy
available for useful work within a closed system tends to decrease with
time, thus received concise restatement to the effect that the entropy
within a closed system tends always to increase.
The concept of entropy was provided with a statistical basis through
the work of Boltzmann and Planck, beginning with Planck’s definition of
‘complexion’ as a specific configuration of its components on the
microlevel of a physical system. Boltzmann developed techniques for
quantifying the proportion of a system’s possible complexions correlated
with each of its distinguishable macrostates. Under the assumption that
all complexions of a system are equiprobable, he then established the a
priori probability of its existing in a given macrostate as equal to the
proportion of complexions associated with that macrostate to the total
number of possible complexions of the system overall. In this treatment,
the greater the proportion of complexions associated with a given
macrostate (i.e. the greater its probability), the less highly organized the
system will be when existing in that macrostate, and the less capable
accordingly of producing useful work. This enabled a redefinition of
entropy in terms of probabilities. If P is the probability of a system’s
existing in a given macrostate, and k is the quantity known as Boltzmann’s
constant, then the entropy S of the system in that macrostate is given by
the equation ‘S=k log P’. (Logarithms were used in this function to make
entropy additive.)
As a result of Boltzmann’s treatment, an increase in entropy came to be
understood not only as a decrease in energy available for useful work, but
also as a decrease in organization (structure, order) of the system
concerned. Yet another formulation of the second law of thermodynamics
now became appropriate: closed systems tend to become configured into
increasingly more probable macrostates, which is to say macrostates
exhibiting increasingly less order. What this means in practical terms is
familiar to anyone responsible for cleaning house, or for keeping weeds
out of a vegetable garden.
Further development of the concept of entropy came with its
extension into the mathematical theory of communication. The
relevance of this extension appears with the reflection that our
information about the specific microstructure of a given system derives
largely from observation of its macrostates, and that the more
complexions there are that might possibly underlie a given macrostate
the less information we have about its actual microstructure in
particular. The situation is analogous to that of a detective with a general
description only of a wanted person: the more people there are who fit
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the description, the less information at hand about the actual culprit.
When entropy is taken as a measure of the variety of microstates that
might underlie an observable macrostate of a system, as in Boltzmann’s
application, then it also provides a measure of our lack of information
about the structure of the system on the microlevel.
Information
Communication theory, pioneered by Nyquist and Hartley in the 1920s
and formulated systematically by Shannon in 1948, is the study of the
efficient transmission of messages through a communication channel. In
its most general form, a communication channel consists of an input
ensemble (A) of symbols (al, a2…ar) and an output ensemble (B) of
symbols (b1; b2,…bs), statistically interrelated by a set of conditional
probabilities (P(bj/ai) specifying for each output bj the probability of its
occurring in association with each input ai. For purposes of formal
descriptions, both A and B are assumed to include a variety of symbol
events, one and only one of which occurs at a significant moment of
system operation. A simple illustration is a telegraph circuit, where A and
B are comprised by events at the key and sounder, respectively, with
conditional probabilities P(bj/ai) determined by the physical
characteristics of transmitting medium.
Because of the variety of symbol events at the input, there is
uncertainty in advance (a priori probability less than 1) about what event
(E) will actually occur there at a given moment of operation. This
uncertainty is removed when E actually occurs (with an a posteriori
probability of 1). The removal of this uncertainty is designated
‘information’. Information varies in quantity with the amount of
uncertainty removed by E’s occurrence, according to the formula ‘I(E)=log
1/P(E)’. (As in the equation defining thermodynamic entropy S,
logarithms are employed here to achieve additivity. Logarithms to the
base 2 are commonly used for convenience in application to digital
computers.) If E has an a priori probability, say, of 50 per cent (think of a
flip of an unbiased coin), then the information provided by its occurrence
measures log 1/0.5 (=log 2), which amount to 1 bit (for ‘binary unit’) of
information. In general, the amounts of information provided by the
occurrence of a given event is identical to the number of times (e.g., 1.74
for an event 30 per cent probable) its a priori probability must be doubled
to equal unity.
The average information (H(A)) available at A is the sum of the
quantities of information provided by its individual events, each
multiplied by the event’s probability of occurrence. It is easily shown
mathematically that H(A) increases both with number of independent
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events at A and with the approach of these events to randomness, i.e.,
to equiprobability. Because of this (and because of the similarity of the
mathematical définition of H(A) to that of thermodynamic entropy S),
the quantity H(A) is often called the ‘entropy’ of A.A related measure
is the ‘equivocation’ (H(A/B)) of A with respect to B, which is the
average amount of uncertainty remaining about events occurring at
input A after the occurrence of associated events at output B. This
quantity is given by the sum of the conditional probabilities of each
event a; given each event bj in turn, each probability being multiplied
by the logarithm of its reciprocal. This quantity approaches zero as
events at B increase in reliability as indicators of events at A, which
makes H(A/B) a negative indicator of a channel’s reliability as a
conveyor of information. The capacity of a channel overall for the
conveyance of information is directly proportional to the information
available at its input and indirectly proportional to its equivocation. A
channel’s capacity in this regard is referred to as its ‘mutual
information’ (I(A;B)), and accordingly is measured by the quantity
H(A)-H(A/B).
While communication theorists typically are concerned with the
design of channels for technological applications, communication
channels play prominent roles in many natural processes as well.
Communication of information in a natural setting often involves
complex sets of channels known as ‘cascades’. A cascade of channels
consists of a sequence of individual channels so arranged that the
output of the first serves as the input of the second, and so on seriatim. A
perspicuous illustration is the cascade beginning at the cornea, and
proceeding serially through the lens, the several layers of the retina, the
optic chiasma, and eventually to the optical cortex. Each individual
channel along the way has an integral part to play in the information-
processing that constitutes visual perception.
A fact stressed by Shannon and other pioneers of communication
theory, but too often unheeded by cognitive theorists employing an
‘information-processing’ vocabulary, is that information in this technical
sense (information(t)) has very little to do with meaning or cognitive
content. The symbol events with which communication theory deals
might receive meaning under interpretation by human users, but by
themselves have no semantical characteristics whatever. One of the major
challenges of cybernetics is to gain insight into how information(t) can be
converted by processes in the nervous system into information with
cognitive significance (information(s))—into information in the sense of
knowledge or intelligence. It is no service to clarity to assume, as is
common in cognitive theory today, that information(s) appears ‘ready-
made’ at the inputs of the central nervous system.
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Negentropy
As entropy is a measure of a relative lack of information(t), so
information(t) corresponds to a lack of entropy. The expression ‘negative
entropy’ was used by Wiener ([9.5], 64) in describing information(t) as the
absence of entropy, and was later shortened by Brilluoin to ‘negentropy’.
Other forms of negentropy are structure (departure from random
arrangement of a system’s components) and productive energy (capacity
within a system for useful work). These three forms of negentropy are
mutually convertible.
Energy is converted into structure when water is pumped into an
elevated reservoir. And structure is converted to energy in turn when
water falls to drive the turbines of a generator. Energy is converted into
information(t) with the detection of a signal on a modulated radio wave.
Structure is convertible to the same effect in the operation of a computer
by a coded punch card. Inasmuch as information(t) is basically a statistical
quantity, its conversion into structure and energy is harder to illustrate;
but an intuitive sense is provided by the thought-experiment known as
‘Maxwell’s demon’. The ‘demon’ in question is situated along a
passageway connecting two containers of gas, and operates a trapdoor
controlling access of individual molecules to either chamber. Initially this
(closed) system is in a state of maximum disorder (maximum entropy),
with gas molecules distributed randomly from moment to moment. The
‘demon’, however, is capable of receiving information(t), distinguishing
slow-from fast-moving molecules, and of admitting only fast into one
chamber and only slow into the other. As an eventual result of the
trapdoor’s operation, the system reaches a state of maximum structure
(segregation of molecules by rate of motion) and of maximum usable
energy (temperature difference between chambers due to molecular
impact), both purchased by the information(t) that enables the ‘demon’ to
discriminate rates of motion. Entropy re-enters the picture with the
observation that actual transformations of this sort among forms of
negentropy generally involve some loss of usable energy, in accord with
the second law of thermodynamics.
An important principle of communication theory (Shannon’s tenth
theorem) states that a system can correct all but an arbitrarily small
fraction of errors at its input if its equivocation H(A/B) is no greater than
the mutual information I(A;B) of its correction channel. An equivalent
formulation is Ashby’s law of requisite variety, to the effect that a device’s
capacity to serve as a regulator (to block variations producing instability)
cannot exceed its capacity as a communication channel (marshalling
variation for the communication of information (t)).
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EXPLANATORY PRINCIPLES AND
METHODOLOGY
Cybernetics has been conceived from the start as a unifying discipline,
providing continuity across the borderlines of more specialized sciences
([9.5], 2). It has drawn freely upon the explanatory resources of other
disciplines, but always with an eye towards applications beyond the
boundaries of their original employment. As the biological concept of
homeostasis was extended by Ashby ([9.17]) to the design of machines
with adaptive capacities (Design for a Brain), for instance, so the physical
concept of entropy was extended into biology with the work of
Schrödinger ([9.14]). Observing that all natural processes produce
increases of entropy in their general vicinity, Schrödinger characterized
life as the capacity of an organism to resist progressive entropy in the form
of structural loss by ‘continually sucking orderliness from its
environment’ (Ibid., 79). The ‘essential thing in metabolism’ he remarked,
‘is that the organism succeeds in freeing itself from…the entropy it cannot
help producing while alive’, which it accomplishes by ‘feeding’ on
negentropy at the expense of an accelerated progression of entropy in its
immediate locale. This characterization highlights the remarkable ability
of living organisms to receive energy from foodstuffs existing at lower
energy levels than themselves, comparable in effect to a toaster being
warmed by a cold piece of bread. It is by reversing otherwise natural flows
of energy in this manner that a living system maintains itself, as Wiener
puts it, ‘as a local enclave in the general stream of increasing entropy’
([9.6], 95).
Another biological concept with broad application in cybernetics is that
of adaptation. Homeostasis itself is an adaptive process, as are other forms
of negative feedback. Among organisms functioning in variable
environments, moreover, there is a tendency to adjust their feedback
capacities in response to pervasive environmental change, which
amounts to an adaptation of adaptive capacities. Species evolution itself
provides examples of this higher-level adaptation, as in the development
of spiny leaf structures by plants adjusting their moisture-conserving
procedures to increasing levels of infrared radiation. While the interest of
evolutionary biologists in such adjustments is likely to focus upon the
underlying genetic mechanisms, however, interest from the cybernetic
point of view will lie more with their effect upon the interchange of
negentropy between organism and environment. The primary role of
such adaptive processes, from this point of view, is to maintain an efficient
coupling between organisms and environment by which the organism
can gain the negentropy needed to sustain its vital processes. By way of
augmenting Schrödinger’s characterization, it may be said that a living
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organism not only is capable of receiving negentropy from its proximate
environment, but also belongs to a reproductive group that tends to
preserve this capacity throughout its membership by adaptive changes in
the feedback mechanisms involved.
While relying upon other disciplines for certain of its explanatory
principles, cybernetics also has developed explanatory resources of its
own which would not fit comfortably into the specialized sciences. One is
the principle of mutual convertability among energy, structure and
information, cited above as being due largely to Brillouin. Another is the
aforementioned law of requisite variety, in which Ashby reformulated
Shannon’s tenth theorem of communication theory in terms directly
germane to the feedback capacities of living organisms. According to this
law, the range of environmental variation to which an organism can adapt
is limited by the capacities of its information(t)-processing systems. A
consequence is that a large amount of the negentropy received by highly
adaptive organisms like the human being must come in the form of
information(t), and that a large portion of their physiological structure
must be devoted to processing this information(t). This result is basic to a
cybernetic analysis of human mental capacities.
These considerations make clear that the sense in which cybernetics is a
unifying discipline has little in common with the ‘unity of science’
projected by logical positivism in the early twentieth century. While this
latter was to have been achieved by way of reduction to physics,
cybernetic theorists from the beginning have been explicit in denying
primacy to the physical sciences ([9.6], 21; [9.7], 1). The biological
principles upon which cybernetics relies are no more reducible to physics
than its physical principles are reducible to biology; and neither science
can deal with information(t) as a form of negentropy. The manner of
unification offered by cybernetics is rather that of a context in which
comparable phenomena from diverse disciplines can be studied in
common terms, without loss of autonomy of the part of the disciplines
concerned.
Because of its essentially interdisciplinary character, there is no single
method or set of methods by which cybernetics can be distinguished from
related fields of enquiry. The experimental techniques of neurophysiology
and control engineering were important to cybernetics at its inception,
along with the more formal methods of mathematical logic, calculus and
the theory of computation. In recent years, cybernetic studies have
employed techniques of systems analysis, organizational theory and
computer modelling as well. From this it follows not that anyone
employing these techniques of investigation ipso facto is engaged in
cybernetics, nor that being engaged in cybernetics requires employing one
or more of these techniques, but only that someone might employ any of
these methods in cybernetic inquiry.
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What is methodologically distinctive about cybernetics is rather the
way in which it undertakes to bring the diverse resources of allied fields of
study into mutual relevance. As an integrative discipline, cybernetics is
more philosophy than science. In his quasi-autobiographical account of
how the discipline came into being, Wiener cites Leibniz time and again
(at one point naming him ‘patron saint’ of the field ([9.5], 12), and
mentions the influence of Royce and Russell as former teachers. Among
other philosophers favourably noted are Pascal, Locke, Hume and
Bergson. While acknowledging debt to these thinkers in various respects,
Wiener seems particularly sympathetic with their interest in
metascientific issues, and with their sense of how philosophy informs the
foundations of science. The way in which cybernetics was pursued by
Wiener is not unlike the way philosophy has been pursued by its major
exponents throughout the centuries. Its manner of proceeding, in most
general terms, was to adopt a few basic concepts and principles of
elucidation, and in terms of these to elaborate a coherent picture of the
world at large. For Wiener, the basic concept was that of system or
organization, and the principles of elucidation those of feedback and
communication. Due perhaps to the predominantly scientific orientation
of other members of his original group, however, there seems to have
been little incentive to work out the ramifications of this methodological
perspective in detail.
A specific mode of enquiry that has proven serviceable to cybernetics in
its more recent development is patterned after a familiar method of
philosophic analysis. In its typical philosophic application, the method
begins with a necessary feature of the concept or kind being analysed, and
proceeds by adding other features until a combination is found that
characterizes all and only instances of the thing in question. Successfully
completed, the procedure yields a characterization unique to the thing
being analysed, in terms of its necessary and sufficient conditions. In its
specifically cybernetic application, the procedure is concerned instead
with complex systems and their modes of behaviour, and the techniques
of analysis might be experimental (e.g., in mechanical or computer
simulations) as well as conceptual; but in other respects the procedure is
similar. Beginning with a component of the complex structure under
investigation, it proceeds by combining other components in some
appropriate order until the structure in question has been exhibited
(mechanically or conceptually) as a combination of parts. What marks the
procedure as specifically cybernetic is the character of the components
with which it deals, and (in application to biological systems especially)
the order in which these components are appropriately combined. The
components will have to do typically with the regulation of the system,
and with its management of information(t) and other forms of
negentropy. In biological applications, moreover, and in any other where
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the structures being studied show signs of having evolved from less
complex substructures, the order of combination should follow lines of
plausible evolutionary development.
This procedure overall might be characterized as a form of analysis
by synthesis, or what in recent philosophy of mind has been called
‘bottom-up’ (in contrast with ‘top-down’) analysis. The synthetic or
integrative bearing of the method is philosophical in character, and is
directed towards understanding a complex structure in terms of its
functional components. The components themselves are understood,
as indicated above, according to the explanatory resources of the
specialized sciences. The methodology of cybernetics thus is both
philosophic and scientific, and might be pursued in a study as well as
in a laboratory.
ANALYSIS OF GOAL-DIRECTED BEHAVIOUR
Among the earliest indications of the interdisciplinary and more broadly
philosophic implications of the concept of negative feedback was the
paper ‘Behavior, Purpose, and Teleology’ published by Rosenblueth,
Wiener and Bigelow in 1943 ([9.12). The seminal idea of this paper, in
Wiener’s estimation ([9.5], 8), is that the central nervous system does not
function as a self-contained organ, taking inputs from the senses and
issuing outputs into the musculature, but that it characteristically acts
instead as part of a negative feedback loop circling from the effector
muscles out through the environment and back again through the sensory
system. The neurological research that led to this insight had been
concerned with goal-directed behaviour like picking up a pencil, and the
authors saw fit accordingly to illustrate the type of feedback involved by
the target-seeking missiles being developed as part of the current war
effort. Weapons of this sort are guided by some sort of communication
link (sounding-echoing, magnetic, thermal, etc.) with the intended object,
through which an error-correcting mechanism operates to maintain the
missile on a course leading to contact with the target. In their initial
enthusiasm for this analogy between human and overtly mechanical
feedback operations, the authors proposed target-seeking behaviour of
this sort as a model for goal-directed (purposive, teleological) behaviour
generally.
A telling difficulty of this model raised in subsequent criticism is that
target seeking of this sort requires the physical presence of the intended
goal, whereas human purposive behaviour (e.g., searching for a lost
earring) is often directed towards goals that are absent. What has been
taken as teleological activity in biological processes (e.g., growth of an
oak from an acorn), similarly, appears to be directed toward goal states
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(e.g., the morphology of a mature tree) that are present, if ever, only late
in the process. A model of goal-directed behaviour better suited to this
wide range of examples is based upon the concept of equilibrium or
stability, and stresses the manner of direction rather than the (external)
goal itself. The missile is guided to its target by feedback mechanisms
designed to maintain a stable correspondence between its actual motion
and the path leading to impact with the target; from the guidance
system’s standpoint (although not the designer’s) the resulting impact is
coincidental. When loss of an earring disrupts a person’s morning toilet,
the search-behaviour ensuing is guided by feedback procedures (search
patterns) directed towards restoring equilibrium to the person’s
dressing routines. And when an acorn begins to sprout and sends down
its roots, its subsequent growth is guided by genetically established
feedback processes towards a state of stable homeostasis (that of a fully
leaved tree) within its living environment. Goal-directed behaviour in
each case is governed by negative feedback, and is aimed at establishing
or maintaining some facet of the operating system in a state of
equilibrium.
Sharing this general form of goal-directed behaviour does not
relegate either human purpose or biological teleology to the mechanical
status of target-seeking missiles. Artifacts like guided missiles typically
are engineered to perform certain predetermined operations when
functioning properly under certain conditions, such that failure to
perform accordingly under those conditions would be an indication of
system malfunction. Human acts performed on purpose, however, are
to some extent discretionary, which means inter alia that failure to
perform when conditions warrant does not indicate a breakdown of the
feedback systems involved. Human purpose in this sense is not
deterministic, and thus is in accord with the general restriction in the
cybernetic framework against deterministic explanations of natural
processes at large (see below). Teleological growth is distinguished from
target-guided behaviour, in turn, not only by being directed toward an
absent goal, but also in that the goal-directed activity involved takes the
form of morphological change rather than change in vectored motion.
At any stage of its morphological development, an organism must relate
to its immediate environment with sufficient stability to acquire the
negentropy it needs to remain alive. Only at a relatively advanced stage
of growth, however, does an organism achieve homeostasis in a form
that can be maintained without further morphological change
(exfoliation of leafy structure, growth of teeth, etc.). The sense in which
biological growth is ideological is that it is directed toward a goal state
which arrives literally only towards the end of the growth process itself,
which is a state of stable homeostasis within the living environment. In
view of the fact that such growth is guided by feedback mechanisms set
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in place by the organism’s genetic structure, however, there is no call to
interpret biological teleology as a causal process in which cause follows
effect. The biological basis of teleology and its causal structure are
examined more fully in [9.9].
FORMS OF ADAPTATION
Morphological development is guided primarily by the genetic
mechanisms of the individual organism. Another form of change to
which organisms submit is adaptation, which occurs primarily in
response to environmental variations. Among modes of adaptation that
had been studied systematically before the advent of cybernetics are
evolution and natural selection among biological species, and the
behavioural conditioning of individual organisms. Cybernetic analysis
of the feedback characteristics shared by these modes of adaptation led
to the discovery of another mode pertaining to the formation of
perceptual patterns, which appears significant for our understanding of
cognitive processes.
Evolution and Natural Selection
A biological species is a group of interbreeding individuals with traits
transmitted genetically to succeeding generations. Membership of a local
subgroup (deme) of a given species fluctuates with changes in local
conditions, as more or fewer members live to maturity in response to
variations in food supply, predation, etc. Adjustments to short-term
environmental variations of this sort generally occur without significant
alteration of the group’s genetic pool, and hence without alteration of the
traits typically shared by its membership. Adjustment to more pervasive
environmental changes like geophysical upheaval or shift in climate, on
the other hand, may require alteration of a group’s specific traits, enabling
its members to take advantage of new food sources (e.g., thicker beaks for
cracking seed shells) or new means of protection (e.g., lighter colouration
for a snow-covered habitat). Long-term adaptation of this sort may be
initiated by a shift in reproductive dominance to individuals within the
group already approximating the features in question, which thereby
become proliferated among members of subsequent generations. An
eventual result may be the emergence of a reproductive group based on a
genetic pool sufficiently altered to constitute a new species. Species
evolution thus may be viewed as the product of a homeostatic process
that enables reproductive groups to maintain stability under changing
environmental circumstances. The mechanism of adjustment is alteration
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of the genetically controlled traits affecting the group’s viability within its
immediate environment.
Whereas species evolution is an adaptive process operating on the
level of the reproductive group, natural selection in turn is an adaptive
process on the level of the biota or ecosystem. A biota is a system of
species interacting within a shared environment, each occupying a
distinctive role or niche in which it can maintain stable relationships
with its companion species. Niches are distinguished by the kinds of
living space (trees, meadows, etc.) and food source (seeds, insects, etc.)
they provide. The normal state of a biota is to provide all the niches
needed to keep its community in balance, and at the same time to keep
its existing niches full with as many individuals as the negentropic
resources of its locale can sustain. Momentary decreases in population
within a given niche may be countered by increased reproduction on the
part of its occupying species, or by the immigration of competing
species from adjacent locales. Excessive increases in population, on the
other hand, will be countered by decreased reproduction, perhaps in the
form of the extinction (or severe depletion) or one or another competing
group. When competition for the limited resources of a niche puts a
newly emerged species at hazard, the eventual result will be either its
irradication by a more competitive species or its establishment as part of
a well-balanced ecosystem. Natural selection thus may be viewed as a
homeostatic process by which an ecosystem maintains integrity in a
changing environment by changes in relationship among its constituent
species.
Learning
Failure of a newly emerged species in its original biota does not preclude
success in some other locale to which it may have migrated.
Characteristics that enable a group to perform competitively in various
locales (part of what above was termed ‘negentropic flexibility’) thus
provide multiple opportunities for success, and are likely to become part
of the group’s genetic endowment. A major provision of this sort
appeared in the course of species evolution with the ability of individual
organisms to adapt their behaviour to local changes in their immediate
environment. Whereas adaptation of primitive life-forms like bacteria and
protozoa depends upon genetic mutations affecting the species at large,
and hence requires a period of several generations, adaptation of
individual behaviour to immediate contingencies can occur repeatedly
within the lifetime of a single organism. This ability is known in
behavioural science as ‘conditioning’ or ‘learning’.
Any operating system produces outputs that are conditional to some
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extent upon its inputs. A system is capable of learning when it can adjust
this conditional association between input and output to its own benefit.
While a biological system in an entirely fixed environment would gain
nothing by such an adjustment, a complex organism in a variable
environment will generally benefit from some behaviour patterns and be
harmed by others. Organisms capable of learning have been genetically
disposed to avoid adversive (painful or ‘punishing’) stimuli and to seek
stimuli they find agreeable (pleasant or ‘reinforcing’). Inasmuch as natural
selection will favour species whose members are reinforced under
beneficial circumstances, and are punished by harmful, the effect of this
disposition in an enduring species is to support survival of the individuals
in which it operates. Learning then boils down to a process of shaping the
behaviour of organisms to elicit predominantly agreeable stimuli from
their current environments, and to minimize the occurrence of adversive
stimuli, with the long-term result of enhancing the survival probabilities
of the species involved.
In favourably conditioned organisms, stimuli indicative of beneficial
circumstances will tend to elicit behaviour likely to secure those benefits,
while stimuli indicative of harmful circumstances will tend to elicit
avoidance behaviour. But when an organism begins to find adversive
stimuli associated with previously beneficial circumstances (e.g., a once
clear stream showing signs of contamination), or vice versa, the organism
will undergo significant changes in the probabilities of its behavioural
outputs conditional upon inputs signalling the presence of those
circumstances. Inputs previously prompting the organism to take
advantage of the circumstances they signify will now tend to elicit
avoidance behaviour instead, or perhaps will simply lose their power to
elicit any distinctive behaviour whatever. And vice versa for inputs
previously leading to avoidance behaviour. By thus adjusting its
conditional probabilities between sensory inputs and behavioural output
in response to changing ‘contingencies of reinforcement’ (the phrase
comes from Skinner ([9.23])), the organism adapts its behaviour to a
changing environment. In its most general cybernetic description,
learning is a feedback process in which the environmental effects of an
organism’s behaviour are channelled back through its sense receptors,
and used to shape that behaviour in patterns conducive to the organism’s
advantage under current environmental circumstances.
Perceptual Patterning
According to Ashby’s law of requisite variety, the range of environmental
variation to which an organism can adapt its behaviour is limited by its
capacities as an information(t)-processing system. A straightforward
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consequence is that the variety of adaptive responses an organism can
make to a fluctuating environment is limited by the variety of
circumstances distinguishable within its afferent nervous system.
Cybernetically inspired experiments at MIT in the 1950s indicated that
frogs, for example, are capable of distinguishing only five or six different
patterns of stimulation in their visual environment, one being a spot the
size of a fly moving a frog’s tongue-length away in front of its eyes. The
frog’s behaviour in its biotic niche is confined to responses to these
distinctive patterns (and a few others like them pertaining to other sense
modalities), each of which is communicated through a set of nerve fibres
dedicated to that pattern specifically. With this method of information(t)-
processing requiring a one-to-one correspondence between message
channel and message type, a radical extension in the number of patterns
distinguishable by the animal’s afferent system would require additional
bulk that could impair its mobility. Perceptual patterning of this sort
might be described as ‘hard-wired’, rather than adaptive in the manner of
more advanced visual systems.
A major advance in adaptive capacity came with the evolution of
organisms able to extend radically their range of discriminable
circumstances without corresponding increase in bulk of their afferent
nervous systems. The manner of information(t)-processing making this
possible permits different stimulus patterns shaped in response to
different environmental circumstances to pass through a single integrated
network of afferent channels. This expedient of adaptive pattern-
formation is similar in its feedback characteristics both to evolution and
natural selection (adaptation on the species level) and to behavioural
conditioning (adaptation on the level of the individual organism), and
might be conceived alternatively as a very rapid evolution of afferent
neuronal structures or as a much accelerated learning of the sensory
system.
By ‘perceptual pattern’ here is meant a more or less specific set of
neuronal events that occur interactively in response to a more or less
specific configuration of external events in the perceptual environment.
Between the external configuration and the neuronal pattern will extend a
cascade of information (t)-channels (e.g., external object to cornea to lens
to retina to optic chiasma, etc.), each serving both to convey relevant
information(t) into the upper reaches of the afferent system and to help
forge the features of the resulting pattern along the way. The key function
of the cascade overall is to fashion a configuration of neuronal events that
stands in a relation of high mutual information (see above) with the
configuration in the external environment. If the mutual information
between external and neuronal configuration is sufficiently high (i.e., they
are sufficiently alike in information(t)-structure), then the latter will serve
the organism as an effective guide of behaviour it undertakes with respect
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to the former. The latter in this respect is an adequate ‘representation’ of
the former.
A corollary of Ashby’s law cited above is that organisms under
selective pressure to increase their variety of adaptive behaviours will be
under pressure as well to employ their information(t)-processing
channels as efficiently as possible. Efficiency might be served by various
‘noise reductions’, ‘boundary tracing’ and other information(t)-
processing techniques of sorts well studied by communications engineers,
performed at various stages along the cascade (e.g., at the retina or optic
chiasma). The result is a neuronal representation of largely ‘schematic’
character, incorporating less detail than might be had at earlier stages in
the cascade. If more detail proves necessary for successful guidance of
behaviour undertaken with regard to what is represented, or if different
representations are required to guide other behavioural projects,
adjustments are made throughout the cascade to produce patterns at the
upper afferent levels with informational(t)-features adequate to the task
at hand.
Pattern-formation procedures of this general sort join with the efferent
faculties of the behaving organism to constitute a homeostatic system, the
normal state of which is a series of afferent patterns providing perceptual
guidance for the organism’s ongoing behaviour. Deviation from the norm
is indicated by incipient loss of perceptual control, and the system regains
stability by restructuring the representations by which this behaviour is
currently being guided. Recent theoretical analysis suggests that
perceptual pattern-formation of this sort provides a basis for certain
cognitive processes typical of the human organism specifically.
HIGHER COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS
Similarities in feedback characteristics among the processes of natural
selection, learning and perceptual patterning, have been extensively
explored in cybernetic literature. Parallels in natural selection and
learning were pointed out by Wiener [9.5], 181), and were further
developed by Skinner ([9.23]). An empirical basis for the account of
perceptual patterning outlined above was proposed by Sayre ([9.9]).
Extensions of this line of analysis to higher cognitive functions like
language use and reason remain more conjectural. The brief discussion
following is an indication of potential rather than actual
accomplishment.
In a perceptual environment providing regularly recurring stimulus
configurations, the afferent system of a perceptually adaptive
organism may develop standard representations which find
employment time and again in the pursuit of its perceptually guided
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projects. Such representations, which might be labelled ‘percepts’, are
normally activated by stimulation of the external sense organs, and in
this sense are controlled by the external environment. Percepts
available to a given organism would typically include representations
of familiar plants, animals, etc. Individuals of species capable of
language will also form percepts responding to symbol configurations
issued by other members of their linguistic community. To learn the
language of one’s community is to learn to associate percepts
representative of familiar objects with other percepts representing the
standard symbols of the language (at first vocal, later written, etc.), in
such a fashion that the former percepts are capable of being activated
by the latter. Percepts that in this fashion have been brought under the
control of linguistic symbols, as well as of the objects they standardly
represent, may be referred to as ‘meanings’.
Meanings in this sense are not abstract entities, but rather well-
entrenched neuronal patterns capable of functioning in the actual
information(t)-processing activities of linguistically competent
organisms. Since the essential feature of a given meaning structure is its
relation of mutual information with the object it represents, and since
physically different structures can share in this relation with a single given
object, the same meanings can be present in different organisms.
Linguistic communities emerge as many individuals learn to activate the
same meanings upon presentation of the same symbol configurations,
and to associate those symbols with the same objects in their shared
environment.
Meaning B may be said to be redundant relative to meaning A when all
features of the world represented by B are represented by A as well. The
meaning ‘ripe’ applied to grapefruit, for instance, renders the meaning
‘yellow’ redundant. Conversely, applicability of ‘yellow’ to a given
grapefruit is required for ‘ripe’ to be correctly applicable. The former
controls the latter in this connection by restricting the circumstances of its
correct application. Concepts may be conceived as meanings that have
been removed from exclusive control of perceptual configurations (either
linguistic symbols or objective circumstances), and brought under the
control in this fashion of other meanings. While the percept ‘yellow’ is
activated only by yellow objects, and the meaning ‘yellow’ either by
objects or their linguistic symbols, the concept ‘yellow’ can be activated
not only by objects and symbols, but in certain applications also by the
meaning ‘ripe’. Understood in this fashion, percepts, meanings and
concepts are all stable structures of neuronal activity, distinguished with
regard to their manner of control.
Concepts may be said to participate in a shared linkage if they are
mutually relevant to each other’s application, perhaps conditional upon
the applicability of other concepts within the same linkage. The concepts
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‘ripe’, ‘yellow’ and ‘soft’ thus share linkage with the concept ‘grapefruit’,
reflecting the coincidence of colour and tactual properties discovered
through the experience of a linguistic group with palatable grapefruit. If a
variety of grapefruit were encountered in which a colour other than
yellow (say, pink) turned out to be a more reliable sign of palatability,
however, the relevant conceptual linkages of the individuals undertaking
to eat this fruit would soon adapt to this novel set of circumstances. Due to
the public nature of the language from which these concepts are derived,
it would not be necessary for other individuals to undergo the same
experiences themselves for their conceptual linkages to be appropriately
modified. They can be modified through conversation with the
individuals first affected. Conceptual linkages thus serve as facilities of
information storage, subject to homeostatic adjustment and augmentation
through the experiences of subgroups within the linguistic community.
Such linkages in effect are neuronal mappings of regularly associated
objective circumstances, subject to adaptation by continued encounters
with a shared living environment. By using these maps to chart the course
of anticipated behaviour, rational agents can explore alternatives before
committing themselves to action.
RELATION TO ALTERNATIVE PARADIGMS
Cybernetics has been guided from the outset by the conviction that a
wide range of human mental functions can be reproduced
mechanically. Among Wiener’s original associates in the 1940s were
several figures (e.g., O.G.Selfridge, W.H.Pitts, W.S.McCulloch) who
subsequently became known for contributions to AI. Spokesmen for
cybernetics up through the late 1970s, (e.g., F.H.George, K.Gunderson,
K.M.Sayre) still considered AI to be an integral part of that discipline.
The original ties between cybernetics and AI were effectively severed
during the 1980s, however, to the extent that early contributors to
machine intelligence who had remained closely identified with the
former movement (e.g. W.R.Ashby, D.M.MacKay, F.H.George, Wiener
himself) are seldom cited in current histories of the latter. This divorce
appears to have been due largely to the recent takeover of AI by the
computational paradigm, and to an ideological slide towards
materialism on the part of its advocates.
Materialism, in its bare essentials, is the doctrine that everything in
the universe comes under the purview of physical science. The
primacy of physics in this regard was challenged in Wiener’s original
manifesto ([9.5], ch. 1; see also [9.6], 21), and was explicitly rejected in
Ashby ([9.7]). Wiener’s disavowal was based in part upon his
realization that the determinism implicit in classical physics is
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incompatible with the variety inherent in biological processes. A
theoretical basis for rejecting determinism in the natural world
generally lies in the principle (a version of the second law of
thermodynamics) that all irreversible processes tend to involve a loss
of negentropy, which entails that causes generally tend to be more
highly structured (involve less variety) than their effects. A
consequence, as Wiener puts it, is that even the most ‘complete
collection of data for the present and the past is not sufficient to predict
the future more than statistically’ ([9.5], 37). Ashby’s repudiation of
materialism was more direct, pointing out ([9.7], 1) that the materiality
of the systems studied by cybernetics is simply irrelevant. Some
organized systems (e.g., computers) are strictly physical, while others
(e.g., linguistic communities) quite probably are not; and the fact that
systems of both sorts can perform comparable feedback and
information(t)-processing functions is no indication that they share the
same ontological status. It should be noted at the same time, however,
that the likely non-physical status of some cybernetic systems does not
convert automatically into evidence for dualism. Contrary to current
dogma in some quarters that materialism and dualism are the only
ontological options on the horizon, a more plausible alternative from
the cybernetic point of view is some version of neutral monism (as in
Spinoza or early Russell). Sayre attempts to articulate a monism in
which neither information(t)-functions of cognitive activity nor
probabilistic functions at the quantum level of matter are further
reducible to mental or physical features, making mathematical
(statistical) structures more basic ontologically than either mind or
matter [9.9].
The computational paradigm in recent AI and cognitive science
rests upon the thesis that cognitive processes are computations
performed upon representations, where the computations in question
are of the sort typified by a standard digital computer. Barring the
arbitrary introduction of randomizing elements, the computations
performed by a properly operating digital computer are deterministic
in outcome, which means that the same input invariably produces the
same output. Even when the machine is computing probabilities, its
procedures of computation are deterministic in this fashion. This
makes mechanical computation an inappropriate model for
indeterministic natural processes in general, and especially so for the
highly negentropy-intensive (entropy producing) cognitive functions
of human organisms. This difficulty, coupled with the well-known
conceptual problems computationalists have encountered trying to
account for the semantic properties of mental representations
(discussed in [9.22]; [9.21] and elsewhere), should dispose anyone
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approaching cognition within a cybernetic framework towards
disfavour of the computational model.
A more sympathetic reception may be accorded the connectionist
paradigm that emerged during the late 1980s, which portrays various
forms of cognitive activity as informational exchanges within a network
of interconnected nodes with varying weights and excitation levels.
Description of these networks is often couched in terms of conditional
probabilities, and hence could be recast without distortion in the
technical terminology of communication theory. Connectionist
researchers have already begun to study certain feedback characteristics
of such systems, along with certain ways in which they might function
in the control of motor behaviour ([9.19], 84). If attention were directed
as well towards how these networks might adjust homeostatically in
response to changes in a cognitively stimulating environment,
connectionism might produce significant insight into the cybernetic
workings of our cognitive faculties.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
General Introductions
9.1 Crosson, F.J. and Sayre, K.M. (eds) Philosophy and Cybernetics, Notre
Dame University of Notre Dame Press, 1967.
9.2 Gunderson, K. ‘Cybernetics’, in P.Edwards (ed.) Encyclopedia of
Philosophy, New York, Macmillan, 1967.
9.3 Sluckin, W. Minds and Machines, Baltimore, Penguin Books, 1954.
9.4 von Neumann, J. The Computer and the Brain, New Haven, Yale
University Press, 1958.
9.5 Wiener, N. Cybernetics, or Control and Communication in the Animal and
the Machine, Cambridge, MIT Press, 1948 (2nd edn 1961).
9.6 ——The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society, Garden
City, Doubleday, 1954. (An earlier edition was published by
Houghton Mifflin in 1950.)
Technical Introductions
9.7 Ashby, W.R. An Introduction to Cybernetics, London, Chapman and
Hall, 1956.
9.8 George, F.H. The Foundations of Cybernetics, London, Gordon and
Breach 1977.
9.9 Sayre, K.M. Cybernetics and the Philosophy of Mind, London, Routledge
and Kegan Paul, 1976.
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Contributions to Specific Problem Areas
9.10 Brillouin, L. Science and Information Theory, New York, Academic Press,
1962.
9.11 MacKay, D.M. ‘Mindlike Behaviour in Artefacts’, British Journal for the
Philosophy of Science 2 (1951–2):105–21.
9.12 Rosenbluet, A.Wiener, N. and Bigelow, J. ‘Behavior, Purpose, and
Teleology’, Philosophy of Science 10 (1943):18–24.
9.13 Sayre, K.M. Consciousness: A Philosophic Study of Minds and Machines,
New York, Random House, 1969.
9.14 Schrödinger, E. What is Life?, Cambridge University Press, 1967.
9.15 Shannon C.E. and McCarthy J. (eds) Automata Studies, Princeton,
Princeton University Press, 1956.
9.16 Shannon C.E. and Weaver, W. The Mathematical Theory of
Communication, Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 1949.
(Shannon’s original paper, with comments by Weaver.)
Closely Related Topics
9.17 Ashby, W.R. Design for a Brain, London, Chapman and Hall, 1952.
9.18 Feldman J. and Feigenbaum E.A. (eds) Computers and Thought, New
York, McGraw-Hill, 1963.
9.19 Haugeland, J. ‘Representational Genera’, in W.Ramsey, S.Stich, and D.
Rumelhart (eds) Philosophy and Connectionist Theory, Hillsdale,
Lawrence Erlbaum, 1991.
9.20 Miller, G., Galanter, E. and Pribram, K. Plans and the Structure of
Behavior, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960.
9.21 Sayre, K.M. ‘Intentionality and Information Processing: An Alternative
Model for Cognitive Science’, Behavioral and Brain Science 9 (1986):
121–38.
9.22 Searle, J.R. ‘Minds, Brains, and Programs’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences
3 (1980):417–24.
9.23 Skinner, B.F. Contingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical Analysis, New
York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969.
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CHAPTER 10
Descartes’ legacy: the
mechanist/vitalist debates
Stuart G.Shanker
I DESCARTES’ DOMINION
Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world
Like a Colossus, and we petty men
Walk under his huge legs and peep about
To find ourselves dishonourable graves.
Men at some time are masters of their fates.
The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars,
But in ourselves, that we are underlings.
(Julius Caesar Act 1, Scene 4)
Rare is the philosopher of psychology who has not felt like Cassius at
some point in his career. For there is no other port of entry into the field
than through the legs of Descartes. Even those—or perhaps, especially
those—who have sought a completely different route have ended up
delivering eulogies to Descartes’ greatness. Mechanist or vitalist, dualist
or materialist, introspectionist, behaviourist, computationalist or
cognitivist: succeeding generations have found themselves responding to
Cartesianism in one way or another.
It is becoming virtually impossible these days to open a monograph in the
philosophy of psychology without beginning with a chapter on Descartes.
‘Descartes’ Myth’, ‘Descartes’ Dichotomy’, ‘Descartes’ Dream’, ‘Descartes’
Legacy’: one begins to yearn for the chapter announcing ‘Descartes’ Demise’!
But the problem is that Descartes really is a Colossus, and the final word in
the history of his ideas will belong to a Marc Antony and not to a Brutus.
Descartes epitomises—and was widely seen by his contemporaries as
having inspired—the enormous social, scientific and even religious
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changes taking place in the Enlightenment. When Newton explained to
Hooke how it was by standing on the shoulders of giants that he had
been able to see further, it was specifically ‘further than Descartes’. No
doubt when the ‘Newton of the mind’ longed for by so many
contemporary psychologists appears on the scene, he will say much the
same thing.
Descartes represents the appeal to reason and self-responsibility over
authority. It is in this respect that the Discourse on Method is such a
revolutionary text: the paradigm of a modern revolutionary text. Not just
the content, but even the very style in which it is written marks a radical
break from the past. Descartes tells of how:
returning to the army from the coronation of the Emperor, the
onset of winter detained me in quarters where, finding no
conversation to divert me and fortunately having no cares or
passions to trouble me, I stayed all day shut up alone in a stove-
heated room, where I was completely free to converse with myself
about my own thoughts.
([10.4], 116)
We have grown so accustomed to the voice in which this is written that it
requires a conscious effort to recover the period eye necessary to
appreciate the full significance of this ‘fragment of autobiography’: i.e.
that it is a fragment of autobiography (see [10.1]). Moreover, the tone of
what follows in the text cloaks the extent to which Descartes was
deliberately challenging the established order. Far more is at stake here
than Descartes’ anxiety to avoid a similar fate to that which befell Galileo.
Hence, we must be careful not to allow the stories about Descartes’
reluctance to publish The World to blind us from seeing what an
extraordinarily bold work the Discourse on Method is: not so much because
it provides us with any serious grounds to question Descartes’ attitude
towards the soul, but because of the truly revolutionary implications of
the argument presented at the end of Part Five.
Descartes is here repudiating the orthodox doctrine of the ‘Great Chain
of Being’. He is insisting that there is a hiatus between animals and man
that cannot be filled by any ‘missing links’. The body may be a machine
(which was itself a heretical view), but man, by his abilities to reason, to
speak a language, to direct his actions and to be conscious of his
cognitions, is categorically not an animal. There is no hint in the Discourse
that any of these attributes can be possessed in degrees. Rather, Descartes’
universe, unlike that of the Ancients, is bifurcated. And at its centre stands
neither the Earth, nor the Sun, but the mind of the individual, responding
to the world around it.
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When Aristotle tells us that ‘Man is by nature a political animal’, or
Seneca that ‘Man is a reasoning animal’, the emphasis is on animal: one
analyses man as an animal species (see the opening chapter of Aristotle’s
Metaphysics). But all this is changed in the Discourse. Here we begin, not
with humanity, but with René Descartes: with the thoughts of a solitary
individual who has come to distrust the teachings of the finest minds of
his time; who has renounced the blind homage to Aristotelian thought
which so dominated medieval and Renaissance thought; who decided to
continue his studies by reading from the ‘great book of the world’ rather
than from the classics, and whose ‘real education’ has taught him to
accept as certain only those ideas which he himself can see clearly and
distinctly: in his own mind’s eye. Descartes’ revolutionary epistemology
thus goes hand-in-hand with the social revolution; for what need is there
for ‘privileged access’ when one has the writings of The Philosopher to
fall back on?
The shock waves which this argument set off—and which it was
intended to set off—were every bit as great as the effect of the Cogito: if not
more so. What was initially hailed by the Cambridge Platonists as an act
of heroism was soon to be castigated as an act of hubris. For the Great
Chain of Being was not a doctrine which Western thinkers were about to
abandon without a struggle. Gassendi swiftly recounted the classical line
(in the Fifth set of Objections), seemingly unaware that Descartes’ heresy
was intentional (see [10.3], II:188). Similarly, the objections compiled by
Mersenne in the sixth set defend the Great Chain of Being from what he
perceived as Descartes’ self-defeating sceptical attack (Ibid., 279). And in
the third book of An Essay Concerning Human Understanding we find Locke
arguing that: ‘In all the visible corporeal world we see no chasms or gaps.
All quite down from us the descent is by easy steps, and a continued series
that in each remove differ very little one from the other.’ The crucial
corollary of this argument is that:
There are some brutes that seem to have as much reason and
knowledge as some that are called men; and the animal and
vegetable kingdoms are so nearly joined, that if you will take the
lowest of one and the highest of the other, there will scarce be
perceived any great difference between them.
([10.11], III, vi, Section 12)
Significantly, when La Mettrie ridiculed ‘all the insignificant
philosophers—poor jesters, and poor imitators of Locke’, it was not for
defending this continuum picture, but for doing so on the wrong terms.
He felt that the real lesson to be learnt from Descartes’ ‘proof that animals
are pure machines’ is that ‘these proud and vain beings, more
distinguished by their pride than by the name of men however much they
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may wish to exalt themselves, are at bottom only animals and machines
which, though upright, go on all fours’ ([10.10], 142–3).
In other words, the defence of the Great Chain of Being could proceed
in either of two directions: show how the behaviour of animals is
intelligent, or that of man, mechanical. Two versions of the continuum
picture thus emerged: the vitalist and the mechanist. The former sought to
blur the lines between the higher animals and man via a continuum of
sentience; the latter sought to reduce man to the level of the beasts by
eschewing the appeal to consciousness. What was perhaps the greatest
irony in the emerging debate between these two polarities is that both
sides were to claim Descartes as their spiritual guide.
For the next two hundred years, the life sciences were dominated by
the battle over Descartes’ picture of the body. To begin with, the debate
centred on Descartes’ claim that ‘It is an error to believe that the soul gives
movement and heat to the body’ ([10.6], 329). With the successful
mechanist resolution of the theory of heat in the middle of the nineteenth-
century (see section 2 below), attention shifted onto Descartes’ picture of
reflexive behaviour (see section 3), and thence, to psychology (see sections
3–4 below). For Descartes’ attack on the Great Chain of Being is grounded
in the fundamental distinction which he draws between actions and
reactions.
Despite the common assumption by Cartesians that Descartes intended
his argument to be read as an inductive hypothesis, it is never quite clear
whether Descartes’ denial of the possibility of purposive animal
behaviour was meant as an empirical or as a conceptual thesis. Certainly
it was interpreted and disputed as a hypothesis. In essence, his argument
is that all bodily movements are caused by ‘agitations in the brain’, which
in turn are triggered by two different kinds of event: external objects
impinging on the senses, or internal mental acts or states. It is the fate of
animals/automatons that they only experience the former phenomena
while man experiences the latter phenomena as well.
This argument may seem to be directly opposed to the sentiments
expressed in the above quotation from The Passions of the Soul, but the
point Descartes is making there is simply that reflex movements are not
volitional (cf. his reply to Arnauld in [10.3], II:161). The distinction
operating here is that between voluntary and involuntary movements. Those
that are involuntary occur ‘without any intervention of the will’, while
‘the movements which we call “voluntary”’ are those which ‘the soul
determines’ (Ibid, 315). These ‘volitions, in their essence (pure acts of the
soul, terminating in itself) are limitless and disembodied, but all existing
volitions (acts of the soul terminating in the body) are limited by the
structure of embodiment’ ([10.13], 109)- Most important of all: to the eye
of the observer, voluntary and involuntary movements look exactly the
same. It is only because each individual is able to see and report on his
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own volitions that we are able to make this fundamental distinction
between voluntary and involuntary movements, and because animals lack
a similar capacity that they are ruled automata.
The argument that these acts of will are transparent to reason
amounts to a doctrine of epistemological asymmetry: while I can know
directly what causes my own actions, I can only infer that someone
else’s bodily movements are brought about by similar mental events.
Hence, for all intents and purposes, the behaviour of other human
beings stands on the same epistemological footing as that of animals.
But the fact that
There are no men so dull-witted or stupid…that they are incapable
of arranging various words together and forming an utterance
from them in order to make their thoughts understood; whereas
there is no other animal, however perfect and well-endowed it
may be, that can do the like.’
[(10.4], 140)
warrants our adopting a stance of semi-solipsism towards our fellow
man, but not towards the beasts. For even madmen can report on their
volitions (the bodily movements caused by their will), but no animal
possesses such a capacity.
This argument invited the obvious response that animals do indeed
communicate, but in a language which we cannot understand (a point
which led Gassendi to reiterate the orthodox line that, ‘although [animals]
do not reason so perfectly or about as many subjects as man, they still
reason, and the difference seems to be merely one of degree’ ([10.3],
II:189)). But Descartes had already anticipated this objection when he
argued that animals lack the sort of creative behaviour necessary to be
credited with such an ability ([10.4], 141; cf. [10.2]).
It is highly significant for the history of psychology that Descartes
immediately tied this theme in to the claim that reflex movements
cannot be adaptative; for from this issue was to ensue the prolonged
debate over the purposiveness of reflex behaviour. But before we
examine the consequent evolution of mechanism, it is important to see
how, despite all the modifications which reflex theory was to undergo,
there is a sense in which this entire controversy completely missed
Descartes’ point.
In the second Meditation Descartes remarks how:
If I look out of the window and see men crossing the square, as I
just happen to have done, I normally say that I see the men
themselves, just as I say that I see the wax. Yet do I see any more
than hats and coats which could conceal automatons? I judge that
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they are men. And so something which I thought I was seeing with
my eyes is in fact grasped solely by the faculty of judgement which
is in my mind.
([10.5], 21)
This last sentence is absolutely crucial to understanding Descartes’
argument, which is that our minds assume, on the basis of the similarity
between the observed behaviour and our own, that the men crossing the
square are not automatons. Our minds cannot see the causes of their
behaviour, any more than they can see the causes of an animal’s
movements. But given the observable disparity between human and
animal behaviour, there is no justifiable ground (psychological
compulsion?) for the mind to extend its mental-causal schemata to the
latter case.
For some idea of the extent to which this argument continues to
dominate modern thought, one need only look at attribution theory.
Heider approached the analysis of social interaction in terms of an
inferential theory of perception: social no less than object judgements
involve the classification of sensory information. Actions are ‘stimuli’
which must be ‘categorized’: they are seen as the effects of external or
internal causes (where the latter are comprised of the mental processes
and states with which the agent is acquainted in the case of his own
actions). Our minds construct and continually revise inchoate theories as
to how attitudes cause intentions and intentions cause actions; whether
we are aware—whether we could be aware—of this mental activity is
another matter (see [10.8]).
On this cognitivist reading of the continuum, we begin with the
paradigm of the scientific mind, and work our way backwards through a
descending level of ‘cognitive schemes’ until we arrive at a brute level of
non-verbal processing. On the converse behaviourist picture of the
continuum, there is no logical need to postulate such ‘mental constructs’
to explain the behaviour of other agents or lower organisms. At the
beginning of this century, H.S.Jennings wrote about the continuity of ‘the
psychological processes’ that constitute ‘the bridge which connects the
chemical processes of inorganic nature with the mental life of the highest
animals’ ([10.12], 508; cf. [10.9], ch. XX). This provoked a sharp rebuke
from the young John Watson:
Have we any other criterion than that of behavior for assuming
that our neighbor is conscious? And do we not determine this by
the complexity of his reactions (including language under
behavior)?… If my monkey’s adjustments were as complex as
those of my human subjects in the laboratory, I would have the
same reason for drawing the conclusion as regards a like
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complexity in the mental processes of the two…Jennings has not
shown, nor has any one else shown that the behavior of lower
organisms is objectively similar to that in man.
([10.14], 289–90)
But that is exactly what Descartes was saying!
To be sure, this does not signify that Watson was really a closet dualist.
By 1913 he was arguing that we could eschew the use of ‘all subjective
terms’ in human as well animal contexts (first-person cases included; see
[10.15] and [10.17]). But what this parallel does reveal is that, whether or
not there is a continuum of purposive reflexive behaviour has no bearing
on the question of the criteria that license our judgment that our
neighbour—or an animal—is conscious, intends to φ decided to Ψ
believes, thinks, sees, feels ξ . At best it merely suggests the thesis that,
should we all become familiar with this mechanist explanation of animal/
human behaviour, the Cartesian might be forced into a much more
extreme form of solipsism in which all human behaviour other than one’s
own would have to be treated on the same plane as animal.
What this means is that Descartes’ attack on the Great Chain of Being is
one that no amount of experiments on decerebrated frogs, hungry dogs,
chimpanzees, blind interaction tests or learning programs can hope to
resolve. This may sound a bizarre claim, given the three centuries of
controversy devoted to the exact opposite premisses. Perhaps the reason
for this anomaly is that Descartes himself was far from clear on the nature
of his argument: is it a priori or a posteriori, conceptual or empirical? Hence,
all the dissension over his motives in consigning animals to the realm of
the mechanical. Many have suspected him of harbouring a hidden
materialist agenda, while an equal number have accused him of devising
his argument with the sole intention of thwarting such a development.
But virtually all parties were agreed that Descartes launched a sceptical
attack on the intelligence of animal behaviour which must be scientifically
discredited if man’s mental processes are to be understood: either by
reinstating animals into the cognitive fold, or by redefining ‘intelligent
behaviour’ so as to return man to his proper place among the natural
order.
In what follows we shall be concerned with both the historical and
the philosophical sides of this issue: viz., how Descartes’ attack on the
Great Chain of Being influenced the development of the mechanist
picture of the continuum, and how, despite the mounting complexity of
mechanist theories, culminating with AI, they have come no closer to
refuting Descartes’ attack on the continuum picture. But the goal here is
neither to praise nor to bury Descartes. It is simply to understand the
nature of his argument in order to understand the foundations upon
which psychology has been built: to clarify the type of theory whereby
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succeeding generations of mechanists, up to and including AI, have
sought to free themselves from what they see as the Cartesian yoke that
is stifling the science of mind.
II THE ANIMAL HEAT DEBATE
The philosopher of psychology’s concern with the mechanist/vitalist
debates sparked off by Descartes’ attack on the Great Chain of Being is no
mere exercise in the history of ideas and/or Weltanschauungen. That is not
to deny the importance of this topic for the sociology of knowledge. But
our immediate philosophical objective is to clarify the conceptual
framework in which psychology has evolved, and equally important, the
attitudes which we have inherited.
To be branded a vitalist is the ultimate in analytic invective: it is to be
found guilty of allowing primitive metaphysical urges to overcome one’s
scientific rigour. No doubt there were countless country parsons and
gentleman scholars who were attracted to vitalism because of their
theological anxieties (just as there are many today who misguidedly
believe that evolutionary theory has a bearing on the Creation myth). But
no such charges could be laid against such scientists as Müller, Liebig or
Bernard without grossly distorting their intentions, and thereby
misconstruing the very essence of the issues with which they were
concerned.
A proper treatment of the complex themes involved in the
permutations of mechanist and vitalist thought would undertake to
trace their history in light of the development of both the natural and the
life sciences, and intimately connected with this, the shifting
conceptions of man’s nature and autonomy. But in so far as post-
computational mechanism represents the culmination of nineteenth-
century mathematical, physical, psychological and biological advances,
there are strong grounds for confining our attention here to the
mechanist/vitalist debates of that period. And yet, the very fact that the
question from whence both schools proceed—viz., what is the difference
between living and non-living matter?—had been a source of
controversy for two millennia should surely give one pause; for much of
what follows turns on the question of whether such an issue is to be
resolved philosophically or physiologically. Or rather, it turns on the
difference between a philosophical and a physiological approach to a
question that is far from clear, nor constant in the succession of disputes
which it has aroused.
The basic problem here is that philosophical and empirical
questions should have been so closely intermingled in the two issues
which dominated the period: the debates over the causes of an
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animal’s ability to maintain a state of thermal equilibrium, and the
question whether reflex actions are in some sense purposive. Of
course, on the scientistic conception of philosophy—the idea that, in
Russell’s words, ‘those questions which are already capable of definite
answers are placed in the sciences, while those only to which, at
present, no definite answer can be given, remain to form the residue
which is called philosophy’ ([10.39], 70)—this is not a problem in the
least; if anything, it is one of the primary catalysts for the scientistic
outlook.1
The point is that the mechanist resolution of these two debates turned
on the elimination of spurious a priori theories, which created a
momentum that carried over into all remaining aspects of the mind/ body
problem (as is epitomized, for example, in Russell’s The Analysis of Mind).
This is made clear in Section 3.4 of the Vienna Circle Manifesto. Here the
overthrowal of vitalist theories in biology is equated with the imminent
removal of similar ‘metaphysical burdens and logical incongruities’ from
psychology ([10.36], 314). Thus, if we are to do justice to the scientistic
conception of the mind/body problem—the gradual displacement of
philosophical theories by psychological theories—we must address both
aspects of the historical antecedents on which this view is based: i.e.
vitalist as well as mechanist attitudes towards the nature of conceptual
versus empirical problems.
It is not difficult to see what position Descartes must take on the above
two issues. The whole thrust of his animal automaton thesis demands that
he show how animal heat and movement can be explained without
appeal to vital forces. Hence, he must show how, in animals, neither the
production of heat nor bodily movements depend upon the activities of a
soul (see [10.6], 329). In the Discourse he introduces his theory of heat as a
paradigm for explaining all animal functions. (‘[Understand this] and it
will readily enable us to decide how we ought to think about all the
others’ [10.4], 134).) The heart, he argues, is like a furnace which produces
its heat by a process similar to ‘fires without light’ (viz., spontaneous
combustion or fermentation). This heat causes the blood entering the
ventricles to expand and contract (‘just as liquids generally do when they
are poured drop by drop into some vessel which is very hot’ (Ibid., 135)).
Note that the reason why Descartes rejects Harvey’s explanation of the
contractile nature of the heart muscle is precisely because:
if we suppose that the heart moves in the way Harvey describes,
we must imagine some faculty which causes this movement; yet
the nature of this faculty is much harder to conceive of than
whatever Harvey purports to explain by invoking it.
([10.7], 318)
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Here, Descartes claims, is an explanation that can be seen to follow from
the mere arrangement of the parts of the heart (which can be seen
with the naked eye), from the heat in the heart (which can be felt
with the fingers), and from the nature of the blood (which can be
known through observation). This movement follows just as
necessarily as the movement of a clock follows from the force,
position and shape of its counterweights and wheels.
([10.4], 136)
Yet few agreed with Descartes’ hypothesis. To begin with, his ‘fire without
light’ merely seemed to replace an enigma with a mystery. Second, the
heart of a newly dissected animal did not feel as hot as Descartes’ theory
would suggest. Third, the argument overlooks the fact that the hearts of
cold-blooded animals beat in the same way as those of warm-blooded
animals. And fourth, the argument does not account for the ability of a
warm-blooded animal to maintain a constant heat within a broad range of
temperature extremes.
It was precisely in order to account for this last phenomenon that
Barthez (re-)introduced the so-called principio vitalis in 1773, but in vastly
different terms from what one finds in classical writings. Barthez
postulated a ‘special causal “principle of life”, which was not to be
confused with the origins of thought’ ([10.27], II:87). He specified the ‘role
of the vital principle in digestion, circulation, the pulse, heat production,
secretion, nutrition, respiration, the voice, genital function development,
the senses, movement, sleep, perception’ (Ibid.). In place of dualism,
Barthez distinguished three separate elements: soul, body and vital
principle, and thence two separate issues: the mind/body problem and
the life/matter problem (Ibid., 89).
At stake for late eighteenth-century biology was the question of
whether the so-called ‘vital phenomena’ were to be explained by special
physiological laws or could be subsumed under the general laws of
nature. The seventeenth-century search for a mechanical account of
matter had obviously received a tremendous impetus from the
Newtonian revolution: not simply because Newton had succeeded in
presenting a unified account of the physical laws governing both the
heavens and the earth, but had done so using concepts whose justification
lay in their mathematical consistency and explanatory power. At one and
the same time this was to have a profound effect on both mechanist and
vitalist thought: the former because it would fix attention on the motion of
matter, the latter because it would appear to license the use of ‘forces’ on a
par with gravity to explain vital phenomena.
What was primarily an empirical problem concerning the location and
generation of animal heat merged, during the nineteenth century, into a
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philosophical debate on the mind/body problem, mainly because the
amorphous notion of vital phenomena indiscriminately grouped together
those biological processes which typify living organisms (e.g.
reproduction, growth, respiration, metabolism) with the so-called
‘psychic processes’ experienced by man. To exclude the latter from the
biochemical successes that were rapidly eliminating vitalist explanations
from physiology seemed, as far as the scientific materialists were
concerned, to abandon the mechanist spirit of the age in favour of dualist
obscurantism. But we must be careful not to generalize on the basis of
their example.
Several historians of science have warned of the dangers of over-
simplifying the mechanist/vitalist debate during the nineteenth century.
There are subtle but significant distinctions to be drawn between the
scientific materialism espoused by Vogt, Moleschott and Büchner (see
[10.26]), the reductionist materialism of the mechanist quadrumvirate
(Brücke, Du Bois-Reymond, Helmholtz and Ludwig (see [10.21], [10.27]))
and Liebig and Bernard’s vital materialism (otherwise known as
‘physical’ or ‘descriptive’ materialism (see [10.41], [10.25], [10.32])). These
differences were a consequence of the fact that the two prevailing theories
of mechanism from the seventeenth century to the beginning of the
nineteenth century—the physical and the physiological—not only
seemed to be independent of one another, but if anything, in opposition to
one another.
The former was the direct consequence of the search for the universal
laws of nature. The latter saw man, animals and plant life as machines
exhibiting a uniquely self-regulating behaviour. This was particularly true
of that most quintessential feature of living organisms: their ability to
maintain a constant heat (generally) above that of their surroundings,
whereas inanimate matter rapidly tends towards thermal equilibrium
with its environment. But despite the attention which this issue received,
it proved impossible ‘to bring a former “vital function”, animal heat, into
accord with the mechanical theories of heat so prominent in the years
following Newton’ ([10.34], 91).
The problem of animal heat is important in more ways than one for the
foundations of psychology. Not only did it dominate the mechanist/
vitalist debate up to the 1870s (cf. [10.33], 6–7), but as a direct result,
created a focus which continues to influence critical attitudes towards
psychology. This line of thought can be pursued in two different
directions. One leads through Helmholtz’s work on the conservation of
energy to the debate on the second law of thermodynamics, the bearing
which the kinetic theory of gas had on vitalist thought, and ultimately to
the development of information theory. The reason why Helmholtz’s
work was so pivotal is partly because of his close relations to the Berlin
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mechanists, and partly because of his unique position to bridge the
physical and the physiological in the theory of heat, as is amply
demonstrated by his publication in 1847 of ‘Über die Erhaltung der Kraft’
and ‘Bericht über die Théorie der Physiologischen Wärmeerscheinungen’
(see [10.24] and for a reminder of the number of participants involved
[10.30]).
For present purposes, we shall concentrate on the consequences of
the physico-chemical transformation of physiology. Although this set
the stage for the unification of the two species of mechanism, it served
in the process to sunder materialist thought. The problem was that
animal heat was but one of the vital phenomena which had divided
the two schools of mechanism. The Darwinian revolution encouraged
a new generation of materialists to assume that the successes
demonstrated in the physiological explanation of the theory of heat
could be extended to the mechanisms governing growth and
reproduction. But what of the host of problems contained under
‘psychic processes’, for example, conscious and unconscious mental
processes, thought, intentions, volition, beliefs, reasoning, problem-
solving, insight, memory, perception and sensation?
The answer to this last question lies partly in the changing attitude
towards neurophysiology. At the beginning of the century Berzelius had
portrayed the brain, not as the last frontier, but rather as inherently
impenetrable. Hence, it was natural to respond to the ‘Brodie hypothesis’
(viz., that animal heat is in some way caused by the nervous system) with
the vitalist dogma that the secret causes of animal heat would prove to be
equally impenetrable (see [10.25], 98). The rapid development of
experimental methodology and technology in physiological studies of
respiration dating from the 1830s was matched, however, by a growing
interest in anthropometry and the anatomy and pathology of the brain (cf.
[10.20], 263–302).
The major breakthroughs which took place independently in both
fields in the 1860s not only dealt a devastating blow to vitalist attitudes
towards the problem of animal heat (and hence other biological vital
phenomena), but also had a dramatic effect on mechanist attitudes
towards the brain. While Liebig, Helmholtz and Bernard were
successfully identifying the complex mechanisms involved in the organic
conservation of energy, Broca, Fritsch, Hitzig and Wernicke were
discovering (or at least, were seen as discovering) the neural localization
of specific motor and language functions. Thus, it was increasingly
tempting to conclude that what was relevant to homeostatic vital
phenomena would apply no less forcefully to ‘cerebral’ vital phenomena.
It was the assumption that any explanation of the nature and causes of
psychic processes would have to be one which pursued the same lines as
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the theory of heat which, more than anything else, divided late
nineteenth-century materialist thought.
Just as Vogt, Moleschott and Büchner had deliberately distanced
themselves from their mechanist predecessors, so, too, the reductionists
were to repudiate what they regarded as the excesses of the scientific
materialists. To be sure, there is considerable overlap between the writings
of La Mettrie and the scientific materialists, if only because of the broad
spectrum of activities grouped together under the notion of ‘vital
phenomena’. But, as even Lange concedes, there is also a marked
discontinuity as a result of the revolutions occurring in biology,
physiology and chemistry ([10.31], ii:240–1). And the exact same thing can
be said of the relationship between the scientific materialists and the
reductionist materialists. Although the two groups shared a strongly anti-
dualist bias, they evinced very different temperaments and objectives.
Whereas the former saw themselves as popularizers and prosyletizers
of a new ethos, the latter were first and foremost experimentalists intent
on instituting new technological and methodological principles. For the
reductionists, the dualist issue at stake was largely (if not exclusively)
confined to the removal of ‘vital forces’ from biochemical explanations of
physiological processes. But for the scientific materialists, this spilled over
into mind/body dualism; there could be no categorial distinction between
mental causes of animal heat and mental causes of behaviour. This
resulted in what has proved the most memorable quotation from scientific
materialist writings: Vogt’s infamous remark that ‘thoughts stand in the
same relation to the brain as gall does to the liver or urine to the kidneys’
([10.26], 64).
Vogt may have been satisfied with the reaction which he clearly
intended to provoke with this comment (which he did not in fact
originate), but the other scientific materialists were far from pleased with
the brouhaha that ensued. Büchner could not ‘refrain from finding the
comparison unsuitable and badly chosen’; thought ‘is no excretion, but an
activity or motion of the substances and material compounds grouped
together in a definite manner in the brain’ ([10.20], 303–4). Despite the
variations which this theme was to undergo in materialist writings from
Cabanis to Czolbe (see [10.35], 469–70), the basic point which remained
constant is that cognition, qua ‘mental’ phenomenon, must permit the
same type of causal explanation as any of the other biological vital
phenomena. And it was ultimately this theme which led to the formal
rupture between the two mechanist groups.
As far as the reductionists were concerned, this was to confuse
philosophical speculation about an empirical problem with empirical
speculation about a philosophical problem. The latent tension between
them which was present from the start came to a head in 1872 when Du
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Bois-Reymond insisted in his infamous lecture on ‘The Limits of our
Knowledge of Nature’ that the real:
faultiness with Vogt’s expression…lies in this, that it leaves the
impression on the mind that the soul’s activity is in its own nature
as intelligible from the structure of the brain, as is the secretion
from the structure of a gland.
([10.22], 31–2; cf. [10.28], I, 102–3)
This led Du Bois-Reymond to close on a note that was to prove no less
provocative: ‘as regards the enigma what matter and force are, and how
[the brain gives rise to thought, the scientist] must resign himself once for
all to the far more difficult confession—“IGNORABIMUS!”’ (Ibid., 32).
Du Bois-Reymond was not hereby abandoning, but was rather seeking
to contain mechanism. His ‘Ignorabimus’ was putatively set by the
bounds of materialism: i.e. what cannot be explained by ‘the law of
causality’ (viz., the nature of matter, force and thought) cannot be
explained at all. The argument was thus intended to circumscribe the
parameters of the mechanist/vitalist debate.2 Far from wishing to lend
any support to the vitalist approach to ‘psychic processes’, his intention
was rather to remove the latter from the scientist’s legitimate concern with
Vital forces’ (Ibid., 24). In other words, the mechanist/vitalist debate is
strictly confined to the life/matter problem; to conflate this with the
mind/body problem is to confuse an empirical with a conceptual issue,
which cannot but result in a materialist metaphysics. (Which in turn, as
Du Bois-Reymond rightly anticipated, would give rise to idealist
responses.) The only issue that involves the mechanist is that:
What distinguishes living from dead matter, the plant and the
animal, as considered only in its bodily functions, from the crystal,
is just this: in the crystal the matter is in stable equilibrium, while a
stream of matter pours through the organic being, and its matter is
in a state of more or less perfect dynamic equilibrium, the balance
being now positive, again approaching zero, and again negative.
(Ibid., 23)
This argument draws heavily on Bernard’s theory that ‘All the vital
mechanisms, varied as they are, have only one object, that of preserving
constant the conditions of life in the internal environment’ ([10.37], 224).
This in turn had evolved from Liebig’s ‘state of equilibrium’,3
demonstrating yet again how difficult it can be to distinguish between the
various schools; for Liebig is commonly identified as a vitalist, largely
because he was prepared to countenance the presence of vital forces in
physiological explanations.
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According to Liebig, ‘the state of equilibrium [is] determined by a
resistance and the dynamics, of the vital force’ ([10.25], 136). Like Barthez,
however, he divorced this vital-causal agency from the mind/ body
problem,4 and justified its heuristic role by comparing it to the concept of
gravity which, ‘like light to one born blind, is a mere word, devoid of
meaning’. In a passage in Animal Chemistry which clearly serves as a
precursor for Du Bois-Reymond’s ‘Ignorabimus’, Liebig explicitly drew
on the methodological precedent established by gravity in order to defend
the explanatory role which vital forces play in physiology:
Natural science has fixed limits which cannot be passed; and it
must always be borne in mind that, with all our discoveries, we
shall never know what light, electricity, and magnetism are in
their essence, because even of those things which are material,
the human intellect has only conceptions. We can ascertain,
however, the laws which regulate their motion and rest, because
these are manifested in phenomena. In a like manner, the laws of
vitality, and of all that disturbs, promotes, or alters it, may
certainly be discovered although we shall never learn what life is.
Thus the discovery of the laws of gravitation and of the planetary
motions led to an entirely new conception of the cause of these
phenomena.
([10.25], 138)
Similarly, Bernard emphasized ‘the vital point of view’ in contrast to
those scientific materialists who ‘paid too much attention to the purely
physical side of nervous and muscular action’ ([10.37], 149). And like
Liebig, he maintained that, ‘When a physiologist calls in vital force or
life he does not see it; he merely pronounces a word’ ([10.25], 151).
Bernard was careful, however, to chastise those who would invoke ‘a
vital force in opposition to physicochemical forces, dominating all the
phenomena of life, subjecting them to entirely separate laws, and
making the organism an organized whole which the experimenter may
not touch without destroying the quality of life itself’ ([10.37], 132–3).
And yet, contemporary physiologists saw in Bernard’s directive idée
which governs the activities of the milieu intérieure a return to just such a
vitalist position.5
To historians of science, the real question which these ‘mere words,
devoid of meaning’ raises is not so much whether Liebig and Bernard’s
theories should be classified as vitalist or mechanist, as whether they
signal the imminent demise of the mechanist/vitalist debate as far as
the problem of animal heat was concerned (see [10.32]; [10.21]).
Bernard sought to distinguish between organic and inorganic
processes without postulating the existence of special laws or kinds of
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matter to explain the former ([10.25], 158–60; [10.32], 457). The
mechanical laws of heat are indeed universal, but ‘life cannot be
wholly elucidated by the physico-chemical phenomena known in
inorganic nature’. But while there are Vital phenomena [which] differ
from those of inorganic bodies in complexity and appearance, this
difference obtains only by virtue of determined or determinable
conditions proper to themselves’ ([10.25], 151). That is, the explanation
of these unique biological processes must conform to established
‘scientific method’: i.e. to the laws of causality.
In an obvious sense this had done nothing to eliminate the core of
the mechanist/vitalist debate; rather, its decline vis-à-vis the life
sciences is to be sought on the sociological, not philosophical
grounds that ‘Ultimately vitalism disappeared with the emergence of
a new set of questions’ (Ibid.) in much the same way and at much the
same time that
Physical research had been diverted…into an entirely new channel.
Under the overmastering influence of Helmholtz’s discovery of the
conservation of energy, its object was henceforward to refer all
phenomena in last resort to the laws which govern the
transformations of energy.
([10.29], 46)
Once again we must be careful not to oversimplify the situation. Given the
diversity of processes grouped together under ‘vital phenomena’, the
mechanist/vitalist debate was far from curtailed by this development:
what occurred was rather a significant realignment in its focus. Animal
heat was now relegated to the secondary status of a subsidiary metabolic
activity. What took its place as far as the controversy over a ‘life force’ was
concerned was the controlling agency overseeing the various homeostatic
mechanisms that sustain life.
The theory of animal heat had left its mark, however; for the very
nature of the problem invited the model of a self-regulating system which,
as Arbib points out, was instrumental in the evolution of the notions of
control mechanism and intelligent automata ([10.18], 80–1). It is thus no
coincidence that the thermostat should have come to play such a central
role in the elucidation of cybernetics. When Liebig first articulated the
principle that all matter is governed by the same thermal laws, he used
the example of food and oxygen as the fuel which enable the animal/
furnace to maintain a stable temperature. It is also interesting to note that
in 1851 Helmholtz and Du Bois-Reymond simultaneously (and
independently) compared the nervous system to a telegraph system
‘which in an instant transmit[s] intelligence from the outposts to the
controlling centres, and then convey[s] its orders back to the outlying
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posts to be executed there’ ([10.29], 72; see Helmholtz’s remark about
Wagner (Ibid., 87) and Du Bois-Reymond’s letters ([10.23], 64)).
This proto-cybernetic picture provided the obvious starting-point for a
new generation of mechanists who were eager to respond to the furore
provoked by Darwin and, even more importantly, the renewed vitalist
attack inspired by Du Bois-Reymond. For Du Bois-Reymond’s lectures
offered an opportunity which no vitalist was likely to forgo, and a
challenge which no mechanist could afford to ignore. Yet another reading
of Du Bois-Reymond’s ignorabimus, therefore, is that while it marked the
end of the physiologist’s biochemical involvement in the physical/
physiological thermal debate, the very terms in which he presented his
argument served notice that the issue was shifting to a different arena: one
in which physiologists and psychologists would do battle with
philosophers over the structure of those teleological and ‘psychic’
processes which Du Bois-Reymond had dogmatically declared out of
materialist bounds.
III THE REFLEX THEORY DEBATE
The debate over the theory of heat established a paradigm for the
scientistic outlook. Here was a case where conceptual progress, made
possible by technological advances, had enabled scientists to eschew any
appeal to ‘logical fictions’. The movement in this issue was from the study
to the laboratory, as a question in which philosophers had originally
played a leading role was ultimately removed altogether from their
sphere of influence. Unlike the case of animal heat, however, the
philosophical problem in the debate over reflex actions concerns the
question whether it makes any sense to suppose that these underlying
neural processes could explain the nature of purposive behaviour.
At first sight the debate over reflex actions appears to be—or at least
was conceived by Descartes to be—of exactly the same order as that over
the theory of heat. Behaviourists, and indeed cognitivists, have cast
themselves in much the same role as the mechanist reductionists. The
whole point of the so-called top-down/bottom-up distinction is to
suggest that, as with the case of animal heat, it would be possible to
resolve this problem experimentally if only we had sufficient ‘information
about the physiological states of the twelve billion neurons in the human
brain, each with up to five thousand synapses’ ([10.44], 476). But at our
present level of understanding:
This vast amount of information and its fantastic complexity
would utterly dumbfound us; we could not hope to begin creating
much order out of such vast quantities of particulate information.
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Rather, we would need some very powerful theories or ideas about
how the particulate information was to be organized into a
hierarchy of higher-level concepts referring to structure and
function.
Hence:
Many psychologists feel that their task is to describe the functional
program of the brain at the level of flow-charting information-
processing mechanisms. What is important is the logical system of
interacting parts—the model—and not the specific details of the
machinery that might actually embody it in the nervous system.
(Ibid.)
No better example of the paramount role which the Cartesian
framework plays in the evolution and the continuity of mechanist
thought can be found than in the persisting mechanist preoccupation
with the nature of purposive behaviour. Goals and intentions are more
than just an embarrassment for the mechanist thesis. They have
become the testing ground which decides the success or failure of
entire theories.
The roots of this fixation lie in Descartes’ attempt to explain reflex
actions in such a way as to encompass all animal behaviour, while
excluding a significant portion of human behaviour. According to
Descartes, a reflex action is the result of the automatic or machine-like
release of animal spirits that are stored in the brain: a point which applies
to all reflex movements, whether these be animal or human. But humans,
unlike animals, are endowed with a mind that is able to modify the
reflection of animal spirits in the pineal gland, thereby resulting in
voluntary or conscious actions.
The obvious response for the vitalist champion of the Great Chain of
Being to make to this argument was to establish that animals are at least
capable of purposive behaviour (or, on the extremist position, that all
animal behaviour is purposive). There was another option available to the
defender of the continuum picture, however, which was certainly not
conceivable before Descartes: viz., that all human, as well as all animal
behaviour, is automatic, albeit governed by mechanisms that might be
vastly more complex than those which occur in simpler life forms. And
given the reductionism which defined eighteenth- and nineteenth-
century materialism, it was only natural to present this ‘mechanist thesis’
in the same terms as applied in the animal heat debate, with ‘goals’,
‘purposes’, ‘intentions’ and ‘volitions’ dismissed as akin to ‘vital forces’.
What makes this issue so difficult is that there is an important parallel
to be drawn between the debates over animal heat and reflex actions: viz.,
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both were first and foremost biological problems riddled by a priori
preconceptions which led into philosophical concerns over the mind/
body problem. As we saw in section 1, at the heart of Descartes’ attack on
the Great Chain of Being is his idea that the subject is conscious of the
operations of his mind: of his cognitions, perceptions, sensations,
imaginings and affects. We experience these ‘actions of the soul’, or, in
more general terms, ‘volitions’, as ‘proceeding directly from our soul and
as seeming to depend on it alone’ ([10.6], 335). But although immediately
acquainted with the ‘actions of our souls’, we are not conscious of the
intervening mechanisms involved in the bodily movements brought
about by our volitions (i.e. the mechanisms activated by the animal spirits
that are released when the soul deflects the pineal gland). That does not
mean that the processes involved in the maintenance of body heat and in
bodily movement are unconscious, however; rather, they are non-conscious.
For to suppose that they might be ‘unconscious’ would imply that these
processes take place beneath the threshold of an animal’s—as well as
man’s—consciousness (where Descartes has already excluded the former
possibility a priori).
What we have to remember in the reflex theory debate is that almost
everyone was opposed to Descartes’ attack on the Great Chain of Being,
but not to his presupposition that all actions are the effects of causes. Thus
the burden which Descartes’ argument imposed on vitalists and
mechanists alike was to establish that man and animals are equally
capable of purposive behaviour: in significantly different senses. In the
case of vitalists, this meant showing how the mental causes of purposive
behaviour are shared by animals; for mechanists, that whatever is
responsible for the ‘purposiveness’ of human ‘voluntary’ behaviour is a
feature that is also present in animal movements.
Both sides were agreed, therefore, that the ‘purposiveness’ of
purposive behaviour must lie in the originating causes of that behaviour,
not in the actual movements of that behaviour. This means that there is
nothing in the movements of purposive behaviour to account for the
purposiveness of that behaviour; we can at best infer, not observe that that
behaviour is purposive (has such-and-such a cause). Yet, both sides were
also (tacitly) agreed that the purposiveness of purposive behaviour must
be evident in the behaviour; otherwise, it would make no sense to
distinguish between ‘purposive’ and ‘non-purposive’ behaviour, and
without such a distinction, no sense to speak of ‘purposive’ behaviour.
Hence our ‘inability’ to observe someone else’s, or an animal’s,
‘originating causes’—either because of the intrinsic privacy of minds (in
which case our ‘inability’ is a priori) or because these causes are neural
(in which case our ‘inability’ is what Russell called ‘medical’)—has no
bearing on the classification of someone or something’s behaviour as
purposive.
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Furthermore, both sides were committed to demonstrating that the
various bodily movements which Descartes had identified as reflexes
are in fact purposive: again, for vastly different reasons. As far as the
vitalists were concerned, this was solely in order to establish that these
movements are not mechanical, i.e. that, as Stahl put it, ‘the very
purposiveness of the so-called “reflex actions” proves that, even if we
are unaware of the fact, the soul controls all bodily movements’ (see
[10.27], ch. 25). For mechanists, the challenge was to show that to
describe a reflex action as purposive in no way entails that it must have
been brought about by the ‘actions of a soul’; i.e. that animals and
perhaps even plants are capable of such movements. But before the
implications of this issue for dualism could be properly addressed, it
was first necessary to confirm that reflex actions are indeed purposive,
and to do that required an understanding of the mechanics of automatic
behaviour.
Descartes’ views had a profound impact on the seventeenth-century
conflict between iatro-physicists and iatro-chemists on the life/ matter
issue. What had hitherto been regarded as a debate over the
universality of the laws of mechanics (the question whether the
operations of the body are subsumed under the laws of physics, or call
for special chemical laws) was now forced to account for the
similarities and/or differences between plant, animal, and human
‘responses to stimuli’. The emerging consensus accepted a sharp
division between the behaviour of living and non-living matter, but as
far as the continuity of animal and human life forms was concerned,
most ‘true philosophers’ agreed that ‘The transition from animals to
man is not violent’ ([10.10], 103).
Both sides in this transformed mechanist/vitalist debate accepted
that Descartes was wrong, but for vastly different reasons. Apart, that is,
from the question of Descartes’ remarks on anatomy, which virtually
everyone saw as antiquated. The mechanists were of course disturbed
by Descartes’ commitment to a metaphysical soul; the vitalists by the
suggestion that a large element of human and animal behaviour is
automatic.
The conflict between the two sides centred on three key problems
with Descartes’ argument. First, the dubious role assigned to ‘animal
spirits’. As Stensen put it, ‘Animal spirits, the more subtle part of the
blood, the vapour of blood, and juice of the nerves, these are names
used by man, but they are mere words, meaning nothing’ (quoted in
[10.45], 8). Second, there was the fact that decerebrated animals can
continue to move, which was difficult to reconcile with Descartes’
premiss that animal spirits are stored in the brain. And third, the fact
that animals are capable of adapting to their environments, which was
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difficult to reconcile with the seventeenth-century conception of
‘machine’.
This last point became the focus of attention throughout the eighteenth
century. Vitalist attitudes are summed up by Claude Perrault’s belief that:
although the movements of plants in turning towards the sun, and
the flowing of the river which ‘seems to seek the valley’, appear to
indicate choice and desire, in reality these movements are of a
wholly different nature than those of animals. In the latter there is
a soul which is concerned with sensation and movement.
([10.47], 33)
The exact same issue—the overriding concern with the mechanics of
‘choice and desire’—recurs throughout the ensuing debates over
mechanism (and indeed, lie at the heart of Turing’s thesis6 (see [10.55])).
The crux of the vitalist position was that, in the words of Samuel
Farr, the body is more than ‘a simple machine, instigated by no
spiritual agent, and influenced by no stimulus’. Even if ‘custom and
habit7’ should have made us oblivious of the fact, all movements—
voluntary and involuntary—are ‘controlled by the wil’ ([10.47], 102).
The proof lay in the dogmatic modus tollens that, if the body were a
machine, its movements could not per definiens be purposive; but since
the latter is patently false, so too must be the premiss. This is the
reasoning underlying Alexander Monro the younger’s assertion that,
‘The more we consider the various spontaneous operations the more
fully we shall be convinced that they are the best calculated for the
preservation and well-being of the animal’ (Ibid., 106). Hence Stahl’s
conclusion that:
Vital activities, vital movements, cannot, as some recent crude
speculations suppose, have any real likeness to such movements
as, in an ordinary way depend on the material condition of a body
and take place without any direct use or end or aim.
(Ibid., 32–3)
The mechanist response to this argument received a major boost from
Hartley’s Observations on Man. The strength of Hartley’s argument lay in
the manner in which he turned a central theme in vitalist thought to
mechanist advantage. Perrault and Leibniz had argued that there are two
different kinds of movement under the control of the soul: those that are
consciously dictated, and those which through habit no longer require an
act of choice for their performance, and have thus become unconscious
(see [10.47], 33). This, too, is an issue which has remained at the forefront
of post-computational mechanist concerns. What is particularly
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interesting, when tracing the continuity in mechanist thought on the
problem of insight, is to locate the origin of Newell and Simon’s models of
the mechanics of ‘pre-conscious selection’ in Hartley’s account ‘Of
muscular Motion, and its two Kinds, automatic and voluntary; and of the
Use of the Doctrines of Vibrations and Association’, for explaining these
respectively ([10.50], 85; see [10.54]).
According to Hartley, voluntary movements are brought about by
ideas, automatic movements by sensations. Sensations are caused by
the vibration of minute particles in the nerves which ascend to the
brain where, if repeated a sufficient number of times, frame an image
or copy of themselves. These images, or ‘simple ideas of sensation’,
constitute the building material for complex ideas. Images of regularly
occurring sensory vibrations can also form in the nerves. These
‘vibratiuncles’ are ‘the physiological counterparts of ideas’. This yields
Hartley’s famous (isomorphic) laws of association: any sensation/
vibration A,B,C, by being associated with one another a sufficient
number of times, get such a power over corresponding ideas/
vibratiuncles a,b,c that any one of the sensations/vibrations A, when
impressed alone, shall be able to excite in the mind/brain b,c the
ideas/vibratiuncles of the rest.
Although prepared to describe himself as a mechanist, Hartley was
no determinist. The problem posed by his argument was simply that,
while voluntary actions are caused by ideas, the latter are themselves the
product of experience. (The price he pays for free will is an
unconvincing defence of a Cartesian soul that is able to originate causes
of actions.) As far as the evolution of mechanism is concerned, the
significance of his emphasis on the role of past experience is twofold:
first, it opened up the prospect of a scientific study of the laws governing
the succession of thoughts; and second, it suggested a method of
breaking down the barrier between voluntary and involuntary
movements.
On Hartley’s account, what were originally voluntary motions can
become automatic, and vice versa: ‘Association not only converts
automatic actions into voluntary, but voluntary ones into automatic’
([10.47], 85). To illustrate the former phenomenon, Hartley cites the
example of a baby automatically grasping a rattle:
after a sufficient repetition of the proper associations, the sound of
the words grasp, take, hold, etc., the sight of the nurse’s hand in a
state of contraction, the idea of a hand, and particularly of the
child’s own hand, in that state, and innumerable other associated
circumstances, i.e. sensations, ideas, and motions, will put the child
upon grasping, till, at last, that idea, or state of mind which we
may call the will to grasp, is generated, and sufficiently associated
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with the action to produce it instantaneously. It is therefore
perfectly voluntary in this case.
([10.42], 94)
Here is an explanation of what, in the early twentieth century, would be
referred to as the ‘stamping in’ of volitions. To illustrate this phenomenon,
Hartley offers the example (now familiar in cognitivist writings) of
someone learning how to play the harpsichord: at the beginning he
exercises ‘a perfectly voluntary command over his fingers’, but with time
‘the action of volition grow[s] less and less express…till at last [it]
become[s] evanescent and imperceptible’ ([10.47], 85).
Hartley made clear that his paramount intention in this argument
was to restore the continuum picture. An entire section is devoted to
showing how ‘If the Doctrines of Vibrations and Association be found
sufficient to solve the Phenomena of Sensation, Motion, Ideas, and
Affections, in Men, it will be reasonable to suppose, that they will also be
sufficient to solve the analogous Phænomena in Brutes’ ([10.50], 404).
He even went so far as to claim that ‘the Laws of Vibrations and
Association may be as universal in respect of the nervous Systems of
Animals of all Kinds, as the Law of Circulation is with respect to the
System of the Heart and Blood-vessels’ (Ibid.).
The impetus for this latter argument lay in the fact that eighteenth-
century vitalists had based their objection to mechanism on the classical
Newtonian exclusion of teleological considerations from mechanical
explanations. This had placed the onus on mechanists to account for the
organization, adaptativeness and directedness of ‘spontaneous
movements’ in strictly physical terms. And that is exactly what remains
most problematic in Hartley’s argument; for Hartley had remained
enough of a Cartesian to see the progression from voluntary to
secondarily automatic actions as the movement from actions caused by
volitions to those instigated by mechanical causes (as is brought out by his
use of the term ‘secondarily automatic’). But then, this does nothing to
counter the terms of Descartes’ attack on the Great Chain of Being, since
the objection still remains that behaviour bifurcates into mechanical and
volitional.
Fortunately for mechanists, the apparent key to removing the latter
obstacle was to be provided, two years after the publication of
Observations on Man, by Hartley’s vitalist peer, Robert Whytt. The central
theme in Hartley’s account of involuntary movement is given the same
prominence in An Essay on the Vital and other Involuntary Motions of
Animals. Indeed, not only does Whytt emphasize the importance of
involuntary actions which we ‘acquire through custom and habit,’ but he
does so using the same example as Hartley. In standard vitalist fashion,
Whytt insists that such ‘automatic actions’ are not mechanical. Hence he
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warns that the term ‘automatic’ is dangerously misleading, since ‘it may
seem to convey the idea of a mere inanimate machine, producing such
motions purely by virtue of its mechanical construction’ (Ibid., 75). But
unlike earlier vitalists, Whytt was not suggesting that all purposive
movements must ipso facto be under the direct control of the will. Rather,
these automatic actions-whether reflex or secondarily automatic—are
controlled by a ‘sentient principle’ which is co-extensive with the mind
but is below the threshold of consciousness, and can thus be neither
volitional nor rational.
This third type of causal factor enables Whytt to complete the anti-
Cartesian attack which eluded Hartley. The key to defending the
continuum picture was to define a continuum of voluntary and
involuntary actions. Hartley could only speak of actions ‘esteemed less
and less voluntary, semi-voluntary, or scarce voluntary at all’ (Ibid., 84).
For the orthodox Cartesian, this would mark the break-off point between
human and animal behaviour. But Whytt could superimpose on this a
continuum of animal and human sentient behaviour. It is precisely on this
basis that we find Whytt emphasizing how:
It appears, that as in all the works of nature, there is a beautiful
gradation, and a kind of link, as it were, betwixt each species of
animals, the lowest of the immediately superior class, different
little from the highest in the next succeeding order; so in the
motions of animals…the mix’d motion, as they are called, and
those from habit, being the link between the voluntary and
involuntary motions.
(Ibid.)
By thus extending reflex theory to encompass both voluntary and
involuntary movements in such a way as to have the one shade into the
other, Hartley and Whytt had paved the way for what would henceforth
be seen by mechanists as the continuum of unconscious/ conscious
purposive behaviour: not just in man, but throughout the chain of self-
regulating life forms. Not the perfect continuum demanded by the scala
naturae, however; rather, a continuum made up of a myriad different
branches (as would, of course, become the primary picture at the end of
the nineteenth century with Darwin’s tree metaphor).
This provides the (barest fragment of the) background to Marshall
Hall’s controversial claim at the beginning of the nineteenth century that
reflex actions are ‘independent of both volition and sensation, of their
organ the brain, and of the mind or soul’ ([10.47], 139)- Hall’s model was
highly schematic, leading Sherrington to warn at the end of the century
that ‘there are a number of reactions that lie intermediate between [Hall’s]
extreme types, “unconscious reflex” and “willed action”’ (Ibid., 140). A
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large part of the experimental progress made over the century was
stimulated by the obvious need to fill in these lacunae. But even more
important, for philosophical purposes, are the misleading terms in which
Sherrington described Hall’s contribution. In the above quotation Hall
stresses that reflex actions take place ‘independent of both volition and
sensation’. Had he described these movements as ‘unconscious’, it would
certainly not have been in the sense which Pflüger understood when he
criticized Hall’s theory, nor that which Lotze intended when he
responded to Pflüger’s attack on Hall (infra).
The use of the term ‘unconscious’ is a source of endless confusion when
discussing the reflex theory debate; for it is indiscriminately applied to
those who held that consciousness plays no causal role in involuntary
movements and those who insisted that all purposive behaviour must—
by definition—be under the control of a ‘degenerated will’.8 Furthermore,
we must distinguish within the former category between those who held
that it makes no sense to speak of a creature or agent being aware of
mechanically responding to a stimulus, and those who regarded reflex
and secondarily automatic movements as unconscious sentient reactions.
Thus, we must distinguish between two concurrent mechanist/vitalist
debates on reflex theory in the nineteenth century: one over the question
whether purposive automatic acts are mechanical or sentient, and the
other whether the very notion of a purposive automatic act is a contradiction
in terms.
Bearing in mind its Cartesian antecedents, it is not quite so curious that
this issue should have been fought out over the question whether the
reflexes of decerebrated animals are voluntary, and thus—contra Hall—
under psychic control. In the Pflüger-Lotze version of this debate, the
issue was largely confined to the question of whether the reflex
movements of a decerebrated frog are conscious. As far as Pflüger was
concerned, the very fact that a decerebrated frog can shift from its
favoured leg to the other limb in order to remove acid placed on its back
renders it self-evident that its actions are intelligent, and hence, that
consciousness is co-extensive with the entire nervous system. Lotze’s
objection to this ‘spinal soul’ theory turned on the familiar theme that
what appear to be voluntary actions are in fact secondarily automatic
motions, resulting from originally intelligent actions that were stamped
into the frog’s brain by previous experiences.9 In order to constitute
genuinely intelligent action, we would need proof that the frog is capable
of responding to demonstrably novel circumstances.
Both sides were agreed, however, that such movements are
legitimately described as ‘purposive’: a premise from which much of the
confusion sustaining the mechanist/vitalist debate was to follow.
Moreover, the very terms of this conflict ensured that such confusion was
to follow. For to agree with Pflüger was to concede the applicability of
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volitional concepts to spinal reflexes, whereas to side with Lotze was to
accept, not merely that such movements can be described as ‘unconscious’
(in the sense that originally mental causes have become automatic), but
equally serious, that learning is a form of neurological imprinting.
Boring dismissed this whole controversy as nothing more than a
squabble over whether to ‘define consciousness so as to exclude spinal
reflexes or to include them’ ([10.43], 38). Were this simply a dispute over
semantic proprieties this issue would now belong to the history of
psychological ideas, not philosophy. But this is not at all the pseudo-
problem which Boring contended. For the problem was not just
concerned with the boundaries of the concept of consciousness: more
importantly, it was a debate over the causes of the behaviour that had been
so delimited (as well, of course, as a debate over the ‘nature and location’
of consciousness).
From a modern perspective, perhaps the most striking feature of the
reflex theory debate is that, the more physiologists began to
understand the mechanics of the autonomic nervous system, the more
prominent became philosophers’ interest in Descartes’ attack on the
continuum picture. One reason for this reaction was their mounting
concern over the determinist implications which scientific materialists
were drawing from reflex theory (as is evident, for example, in the
writings of Mill, Green, Sedgewick and Spencer). Thus, we find
Carpenter insisting in Principles of Mental Physiology ([10.46]) that what
mechanists had ignored in their quest to ‘elucidate the mechanism of
Automatic action’ were
the fundamental facts of Consciousness on which Descartes
himself built up his philosophical fabric, dwelling exclusively on
Physical action as the only thing with which Science has to do, and
repudiating the doctrine (based on the universal experience of
mankind) that the Mental states which we call Volitions and
Emotions have a causative relation to Bodily changes.
([10.47],
Well into this century we encounter Descartes’ argument for
‘semisolipsism’, but with one notable difference: gone is any hint of
Descartes’ consequent attack on the continuum picture. Herrick, for
example, explains in Neurological Foundations of Animal Behavior (1924)
that:
Consciousness, then, is a factor in behavior, a real cause of human
conduct, and probably to some extent in that of other animals…
This series of activities as viewed objectively forms an unbroken
graded series from the lowest to the highest animal species. And
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since in myself the awareness of the reaction is an integral
part of it, I am justified in extending the belief in the
participation of consciousness to other men and to brutes in
so far as the similarities of their objective behavior justify the
inference.
([10.47], 179)
This overturning of Descartes’ intentions was based on an argument
which one finds in such self-styled defenders of Descartes’ ‘animal
automata’ thesis as Lewes and Huxley: viz., the doctrine that animals, and
indeed man, are ‘sentient automata’ (see [10.51]).10
What these neo-Cartesians thought they were doing was correcting an
empirical oversight on Descartes’ part on the basis of the two centuries of
physiological advances that had intervened. They proposed to replace
Descartes’ mechanical distinction between conscious/voluntary and non-
conscious/involuntary movements with a sentient distinction between
conscious/voluntary and unconscious/involuntary movements. The
major benefit of this strategy is that it enabled them to reconcile the
existence of volitions with the continuum picture, and thus, remain in step
with the dawning Darwinian revolution.11
This does not mean, however, that they were about to
anthropomorphize animals by assigning them voluntary acts as defined
by Descartes. The ‘similarities of objective behaviour’ between animals
and man lay rather at the level of sentient—equals unconscious or
automatic—reactions. This leads one to suspect that perhaps the real point
which Boring was driving at was that this controversy was not so much
over the definition of ‘consciousnes’ as over the definition of ‘machine’.
For both sides of the mechanical/sentient debate were committed to a
mechanist framework which was to survive the particulars of the Pflüger-
Lotze dispute.
According to the vitalist outlook, secondarily automatic actions are the
result of neural mechanisms that had been imprinted in the frog’s
cerebrum. When the animal was first undergoing these experiences it
might have been conscious of its sensations; but consciousness, on this
model, is deprived of any causal agency suggested by its inclusion in the
group of ‘vital phenomena’, and reduced to the role of passive
bystander.12 In which case, should this behaviour become habitual, there
is no reason to retain this ‘ghost in the machine’ in order to account for its
residual purposive character.
On this argument, the difference ‘between conscious, sub-conscious,
and unconscious states…is only of degree of complication in the neural
processes’ ([10.52], 407). That is, consciousness is an emergent property, and
‘There is no real and essential distinction between voluntary and
involuntary actions. They all spring from Sensibility. They are all
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determined by feeling’ (Ibid., 420-2). The purposiveness of the behaviour
exhibited by decerebrated animals results from the fact that ‘sensations
excite other sensations’. But while such movements may not be
‘stimulated by cerebral incitations, and cannot be regulated or controlled
by such incitations—or as the psychologists would say, because
Consciousness in the form of Will is no agent prompting and regulating
such actions’—they nonetheless ‘have the general character of sentient
actions’ (Ibid., 416). Hence, the flaw in the mechanist argument lies in the
fact that reflex acts are ‘consentient’ and for that reason ‘not physical but
vital’ (Ibid., 366).
Mechanists were quick to point out that the only rationale for this use
of ‘vital’ is that the laws governing the mechanics of unconscious
purposive behaviour are biological rather than physical; and the
mechanical sense of ‘cause’ which underpins this objection was already
being replaced by a new conception that could embrace both types of
phenomena. But what is perhaps most significant in the reflex theory
debate as it stood at the end of the century is the mechanist use of
‘unconscious’. Far from considering what it would mean to attribute
consciousness to an intact—much less a decerebrated—frog, this was
accepted as a question about the ‘divisibilit’ of consciousness. Certainly
no one ever considered what sort of actions would license the assertion
that these mutilated creatures were conscious or unconscious.13
What is not at first clear is why mechanists should have allowed
themselves to be coerced into this position, rather than making the
entirely sound point (which seems to have been Hall’s original intention)
that it makes no sense to describe such behaviour in terms of either the
presence or suspension of consciousness. To characterize such
movements as either unconscious or involuntary presupposes the logical
possibility of consciousness or volition. But that was the last thing that
mechanists wanted to suggest: for reasons which had nothing to do with
considerations about the rules governing the application of the concepts
of consciousness and unconsciousness. Rather, the whole thrust of the
mechanist thesis had derived from the pressure to explain how ‘purposive
actions may take place, without the intervention of consciousness or
volition, or even contrary to the latter’ ([10.51], 218).
As would soon become apparent, the key word in this passage was
‘intervention’. For there was no reason why mechanists should object to
epiphenomenalism. Their quarrel was solely with the dualist notion of
‘psychic directedness’ to account for automatic motions. Thus, as far as
the mechanist/vitalist debate over the nature of automatic acts was
concerned, this was soon to become a dispute in name only. But then,
why not extend exactly the same strategy to the remaining pillar of the
vitalist argument: why eschew volitions when all you need to do is
redefine them?
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Thus it was that from one confused debate was born another. The
problem was that all were agreed that the frog was trying to remove the
acid placed on its back. But it is not at all clear what it means to speak of a
creature trying to accomplish some goal of which it is not—and could not
be—aware. Nor does it make any sense to suppose that we can at best
‘infer’ whether such a disfigured creature is or is not aware of a pain
sensation and is trying to alleviate its discomfort. This very assumption is
a reminder of the Cartesian origins of this debate: of the premiss that it is
only our inability to observe the frog’s mind (or at least, what was left of
it!) which prevents us from resolving this issue.
Our judgements of a frog’s sentience or its intentions are based on
the rules governing the use of the concepts of consciousness and
intention: rules which are grounded in the paradigm of human
behaviour. In so far as human beings serve as the paradigm subjects for
our use of psychological concepts, any question about the application
of these concepts to lower organisms demands that we compare the
behaviour of such creatures with the relevant human behaviour which
underpins our use of that concept. For example, it is the complexity of
the behaviour displayed by an organism which determines whether or
not there are sufficient grounds for the attribution of a perceptual
faculty. Thus, in order to establish that Porthesia chrysorrhoea can
perceive light, Jacques Loeb had to show, not just that they react to
certain stimuli, but that they are able to discern various features of their
environment, i.e. that these caterpillars are able to employ what is in
fact a perceptual organ to acquire knowledge about their environment.
Otherwise the relevant concept here is not perception but rather, what
Loeb so aptly described as a ‘heliotropic mechanism’ (see Section 4
below).
The corollary of this argument is that only of the caterpillar itself would
it make sense to say that it ‘perceives’: not its ‘photo-receptive organ’ (or,
in the case of the Pflüger—Lotze debate, the frog’s central nervous
system). The same holds true whether we are talking of more complex
sensori-motor structures and perceptual organs, or indeed, the ‘mind’,
‘soul’ or ‘consciousness’. For in none of these cases does it make sense to
say that the organ or faculty in question demonstrates its ability to
discriminate features of its environment. The rule of logical grammar
rendering such a usage meaningless is that, only of the organism as a
whole does it make sense to apply our psychological and cognitive
concepts.14
It was only their preoccupation with salvaging the continuum picture
which prevented the various mechanist and vitalist protagonists from
realizing from the start just how curious were the questions which had inspired
their bizarre debate.15 It was this common nineteenth-century priority
which led them to assume that the difference between sensori-motor
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excitation, sensations, and perceptions is itself one of degree rather than of
kind. But the difference between these three concepts is categorial, not
quantitative. Hence, the source of the mechanist version of the continuum
picture lay in the distortions which resulted from this illicit attempt to
relate the concept of sensation to that of perception on a scale of neural
complexity rather than discerning the logico-grammatical distinctions
operating here.
There are indeed important lessons to be learnt from this debate:
lessons about the application of psychological as well as physiological
concepts. Mechanists were quite right to argue that, from the premiss that
I can be unconscious of responding to a stimulus, it does not follow that
that response was volitional. But exactly the same holds true if I am
conscious of an automatic response to a stimulus. Conversely, I can
respond mechanically to some signal (e.g. a conversational cue), but it
does not follow that my response was determined by a causal mechanism.
If my response to a stimulus was ‘willed’ (e.g. I stifle a yawn), then it was
not a reflex. And if this behaviour should become habitual, then it is no
longer willed.
Are these empirical observations? A similar question arises with
respect to the Pflüger-Lotze debate. What Pflüger’s experiments tell us is
not that the frog was unconsciously trying to remove the acid placed on
its back, but that we must be careful of how we apply the same concepts
to a normal frog. For just as the decerebrated frog was neither responding
unconsciously to a stimulus nor trying to remove the acid, so we have to
reconsider what it means to say of an ordinary frog that it was
consciously trying to remove acid placed on its back.16 (Consider the
experiments on the signal detectors in a frog’s eye which are activated
by any movement at the periphery of its visual field, and not just that of
a fly.) That is not to say that we could never attribute such a
psychological capacity to a frog but only, that experiments such as those
performed by Pflüger and Goltz remind us of the defeasibility of our
judgements of animal behaviour, i.e. force us to register the difference
between instincts or reflexes and actions.
It was only by treating the categorial distinctions between
sensorimotor excitation, sensations and perceptions as gradations on the
scale of consciousness that the way was then open to regarding purposive
behaviour as an ascending causal mechanism in which the relations to
intentions and learning are rendered external rather than internal, and
adaptation is misconstrued as a cognitive process. But there is no
evolutionary continuum of purposeful behaviour such that, e.g. the
contraction of the pupil of the eye belongs to the same category as striving
for a goal; for the former is not a more ‘primitive’ form of purposive
behaviour but rather, a reflex movement as opposed to purposive
behaviour.
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With the growing interest in comparative psychology which resulted
from the Darwinian revolution, and the emphasis on evolutionary
associationism that accompanied this, it was natural for mechanists to
proceed from the opposite direction. Thus, it was held that consciousness
and volition develop by degrees, and that the resemblance between the
behaviour of a decerebrated frog and that of man is not and could not be
expected to be pronounced. Rather, the correspondence lies at the sub-
behavioural level: in particular, at the neurological structure where
associations between sensations are imprinted. But then, such an
argument only makes sense against the premiss that this mechanism is
that which guides purposive behaviour simpliciter, and to assume that the
reactions of a lower organism are purposive is to presuppose all of the
foregoing argument. As indeed it must, for only of a human being and
what resembles (behaves like) a human being can one say: it behaves in a
purposive manner. Thus the crucial issue which such an argument
overlooks is the need to explain in what sense such causal reactions can be
termed purposive. And this was an omission which beset both sides of
this mechanist/vitalist debate; or rather, a product of the Cartesian
framework which governed their outlooks, and those who were about to
follow in their footsteps.
IV THE RISE OF A ‘NEW OBJECTIVE TERMINOLOGY’
Lewes once observed that:
We can conceive an automaton dog that would bark at the
presence of a beggar, but not an automaton dog that would bark
one day at a beggar, and the next day wag his tail, remembering
the food the beggar had bestowed.
([10.00], 304)
Well, why not? Does this not reflect the manner in which the currently
prevailing techology seems to limit the powers of one’s imagination?
Certainly, Lewes’s objection would pose no formidable obstacle to today’s
science of robotics. Moreover, from his own point of view, Lewes seems to
have succumbed to a vitalist conception of mental states. What could be
easier than to expose Lewes’s regression by decerebrating a dog and then
watching its behaviour after being repeatedly fed (as Goltz had in fact
done). No doubt tail-wagging will turn out to have as mechanical
(sentient!) an explanation as salivating. And yet, Lewes would seem to
have placed his finger on a troubling problem: one which is impervious to
conditioning experiments.
In place of Lewes’s question we might ask: could an automaton dog
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restrain itself from wagging its tail? Or better still, deliberately wag its tail
in order to elicit food when it couldn’t care less about seeing the beggar
once again, or when it wasn’t even hungry? For that matter, how can we
be certain that the movements of a decerebrated animal are identical to
those of an intact animal without observing its mind: perhaps reflexes
step in when the mind ceases to control?
The real problem here is that, while Lewes and Huxley had succeeded
in drawing an important distinction between mechanical and animal
automata, this does not suffice to silence Descartes’ attack on the
continuum picture. One would hardly want to argue that the behaviour of
a frog (the ‘Job of physiology’)—with or without its cerebrum—mirrors
that of a human being when, for example, he has burnt himself. And
while designating consciousness an emergent property may overturn the
Cartesian picture of mental states and processes, it does nothing to reduce
the Cartesian gulf between voluntary and involuntary behaviour. One can
simply argue that voluntary actions are determined by preconscious
mental causes.
The only way that the argument that ‘There is no real and essential
distinction between voluntary and involuntary actions, they all spring
from Sensibility, they are all determined by feeling’ could remove the
Cartesian assumption that man, unlike any of the lower life forms, is
endowed with a soul which determines ‘those movements which we call
“voluntary”’, was by abandoning mental causes as conceived by Descartes
altogether. Thus Huxley argued that:
volition…is an emotion indicative of physical changes, not a cause of
such changes. [T]he feeling we call volition is not the cause of a
voluntary act, but the symbol of that state of the brain which is the
immediate cause of that act.
([10.51])
But in order to sustain the voluntary/involuntary distinction, it was
necessary to superimpose on this the premiss that the former are
associated with a distinctive state of consciousness.
In Hume Huxley insists that ‘volition is the impression which arises
when the idea of a bodily or mental action is accompanied by the desire
that the action should be accomplished’ ([10.51], 184). Hence, the
difference between voluntary and involuntary movements is
phenomenological, not causal: the former are simply those actions
accompanied by a special mental state (which is itself determined by past
events). But then, this only serves to revive Descartes’ attack on the
continuum picture; for animals must also be capable of experiencing these
attendant desires (‘purposes’), and Huxley remained enough of a
Cartesian to embrace the impossibility of knowing whether or not this
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was the case (see [10.51]). This meant that there was only one direction in
which a mechanism committed to continuity could proceed: dispense
entirely with any causal distinction between ‘voluntary’ and ‘involuntary’
movements, and define the apparent difference between them in terms of
experience.
Thus it was that the birth of psychology, like that of modern India,
was marked by a bloody clash between two rival factions: in effect, those
who wanted to confront Descartes’ problem and those who wanted to
deny it—James versus Loeb. This may seem an oversimplification of the
conflict over whether this new science should be governed by
physiology or philosophy, especially as far as the fathers of
behaviourism are concerned. But the fact is that, one way or another, the
prospects of the mechanist thesis depended at this point on the abolition
of volitions. And this was precisely the move which Jacques Loeb
pursued.
Frustrated with philosophy, Loeb had turned first to
neurophysiology, then biology, in his quest to solve the ‘problem of will’.
Studying under Goltz, he became convinced that consciousness is
irrelevant to behaviour, and could be eliminated from an exclusively
associationist explanation of the purposiveness of automatic actions.
‘What the metaphysician calls consciousness are phenomena
determined by the mechanisms of associative memory’ ([10.69], 214). He
found the tool for implementing this programme in the work of Julius
Sachs, who had employed the notion of tropism—the explanation of the
‘turning’ of a plant in terms of its physico-chemical needs in direct
response to external stimuli—as a means of extending the reductionist
outlook of the mechanistic quadrumvirate to botany. Seeing in tropisms
a biological parallel to automatic movements, Loeb undertook to
advance mechanism by employing Sachs’ approach as a starting-point
for the psychology of animal behaviour (Ibid., 1ff, 77).
The aim of Loeb’s subsequent research on animal heliotropism was to
exhibit various organisms as ‘photochemical machines enslaved to the
light’. To accomplish this, he demonstrated that when the caterpillars of
Porthesia chrysorrhoea are exposed to light coming from the opposite
direction to a supply of food, they invariably move towards the former,
and perish as a result. Such experiments undermined the vitalist premiss
that all creatures are governed by an unanalysable instinct for self-
preservation: ‘In this instance the light is the “will” of the animal which
determines the direction of its movement, just as it is gravity in the case of
a falling stone or the movement of a planet’ ([10.70], 40–1).
Since it was in principle possible to explain ‘on a purely physico-
chemical basis’ a group of ‘animal reactions…which the metaphysician
would classify under the term of animal “will”’ (Ibid., 35), the answer to
nothing less than the ‘riddle of life’ must lie in the fact that ‘We eat, drink,
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and reproduce not because mankind has reached an agreement that this is
desirable, but because, machine-like, we are compelled to do so’ (Ibid.,
33). But surely, one wants to argue, Loeb’s experiments had nothing to do
with the ‘problem of will’; in his own words, ‘Heliotropic animals are…in
reality photometric machines’ (Ibid., 41). The fact that the caterpillars
expired for want of food was no more a demonstration of (perverse!)
purposive behaviour than the converse result would have supported
vitalism. To suppose that their motor responses could exhibit the
complexity of human purposive behaviour is once again to assume ab
initio that intentions and volitions are simply part of a causal chain, from
which the ability to choose, decide, select and deliberate are excluded a
priori. But that was exactly what Loeb intended! This was not to be an
isolated attack on the notion of will: all of the ‘mentalist’ concepts were to
be removed from the eliminativist analysis of purposive—equals self-
regulatin—behaviour.
That is not to say that the distinction between voluntary and
involuntary movements would also have to be abandoned: only that it
would have to be redefined accordingly. Loeb could only hint at the
direction in which he thought this should proceed: it would indeed be in
terms of ‘associated memories’, but Loeb was careful to explain that
what he meant by the term was the (experimentally observable)
‘mechanism by which a stimulus brings about not only the effects which
its nature and the specific structure of the irritable organ call for, but by
which it brings about also the effects of other stimuli which formerly
acted upon the organism almost or quite simultaneously with the
stimulus in question’ [10.68], 72). In other words, a conditioned
response.
Thus, Loeb, unlike Huxley, was able to salvage the continuum picture
precisely because he eschewed the principle of sentient continuity. All that
matters is that ‘If an animal can be trained, if it can learn, it possesses
associative memory’ (Ibid., 72). This tied in with the Darwinian shift
which occurred in late nineteenth-century mechanism.17 In the conclusion
to Origin of Species, Darwin had proclaimed that ‘Psychology will be based
on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental
power and capacity by gradation’ ([10], 488). And in Descent of Man he
declared that ‘the difference in mind between man and the higher
animals, great as it is, certainly is one of degree and not of kind’ [10.6].
Loeb was simply removing the ‘mentalist’ obstacles to this version of the
continuum picture.
Mechanists quickly embraced this explanation of continuity (although
there was considerable disagreement over whether this implied a single
continuum, such as Spencer favoured,18 or the picture of branching
continuity championed by Darwin). What is perhaps most interesting,
when looking at the development of mechanist thought at the beginning
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of this century, is how quickly and thoroughly Loeb’s outlook came to
dominate American psychology. That is not to say it went unchallenged.
Perhaps the most famous opposition came from Jennings in The Behavior of
the Lower Organisms ([10.9]). But ironically, even though Jennings may be
said to have won the biological battle, this only resulted in the further
entrenchment of the mechanist as opposed to the psychic continuum
which Jennings advocated (see [10.74]).
Jennings demonstrated, on the basis of Thorndike’s trial-and-error
experiments on the ‘stamping in’ of behaviour into cats, how it is
possible to overcome tropic through conditioned responses. Hence
purposive behaviour should be seen as an ongoing process in which
an organism’s physico-chemical needs interact with and are shaped
by its environment.19 But whatever damage this might have inflicted
on the science of animal tropism, Jennings’ opposition only served to
promote even further Loeb’s definition of purposive behaviour as a
species of neurological adaptation and control, and the mechanist
expectation that:
the more complex activities of the body, which are made up by a
grouping together of the elementary locomotor activities, and
which enter into the states referred to in psychological phraseology
as ‘playfulness’, ‘fear’, ‘anger’, and so forth, will soon be
demonstrated as reflex activities of the subcortical parts of the
brain.
([10.75], 4)
This was not intended to be read as a logical behaviourist thesis. Loeb
and Pavlov were not urging that propositions about purposive or
volitional behaviour can be reduced to or translated into propositions
about molar or molecular behaviour. Rather, they were arguing that the
former type of constructions are literally meaningless (although
poetically resonant), while the latter capture the only sense in which the
causes of behaviour can be intelligibly explained and thence controlled.
The model for this argument was constituted by the mechanist
resolution of the animal heat and reflex theory debates. Propositions
about the homeostatic mechanisms sustaining thermal equilibrium, or
about the sensori-motor system, did not supply the meaning of
propositions citing vital forces, but rather, demonstrated the vacuity of
the latter.
Pavlov made clear at the start of Conditioned Reflexes how his
endeavour to ‘lay a solid foundation for a future true science of
psychology’ (Ibid., 4) was the end-result of nineteenth-century mechanist
thought: ‘such a course is more likely to lead to the advancement of this
branch of natural science’ if it embraces the conception that:
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Reflexes are the elemental units in the mechanism of perpetual
equilibration. Physiologists have studied and are studying at the
present time these numerous machine-like, inevitable reactions of
the organism—reflexes existing from the very birth of the animal,
and due therefore to the inherent organization of the nervous
system.
(Ibid., 8)
In other words, so-called ‘purposive’ behaviour should be understood as
the physico-chemical balance that an organism maintains by means of a
complex system of ‘Reflexes [which,] like the driving-belts of machines of
human design, may be of two kinds—positive and negative, excitatory
and inhibitory’ (Ibid., 8).
In Pavlov’s eyes, the key to this breakthrough lay in the advance of
physiology from the study of bodily reflexes into the operations of the
cerebral cortex. Pavlov saw himself as advancing Loeb’s work by
explaining animal behaviour in terms of what Charles Richet had called
‘psychic reflexes’ (Ibid., 5). He undertook to extend ‘recent
physiology[’s]…tendency to regard the highest activities of the
hemispheres as an association of the new excitations at any given time
with traces left by old ones (associative memory, training, education by
experience)’ (Ibid.).
Significantly, Pavlov endorsed the ‘new objective terminology to
describe animal reactions’ introduced by Beer, Bethe, and Üxküll, on the
grounds that not only is there no justification for ascribing psychic
processes to animals: there is simply no need. Hence the term ‘purpose’ is
conspicuously missing from his writings. Indeed, early behaviourist
thought was largely governed by this unwritten injunction to ignore and
wherever possible redescribe the role of goals and intentions in human
and animal behaviour. For the new psychology was to be an engineering
science, unconcerned with any of the spurious issues bequeathed by the
mind/body problem.
Nevertheless, their commitment to the continuum picture entailed
that they could not avoid philosophical involvement, however acerbic
their comments on the sterility of a priori reasoning. For the only way a
mechanist continuum of purposive behaviour could be instituted was
via an implicit analysis of the family of psychological concepts involved,
such that the difference between voluntary and involuntary behaviour
could be treated as one of causal complexity rather than kind. Thus, we
find the leading behaviourists forced to deal with these philosophical
problems which, so they repeatedly claimed, did not concern them in
the least.
Watson exemplifies the pattern. In ‘Psychology as the Behaviorist Sees
It’ [10.82] he makes it clear that his sole interest is in the issue of control.
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This is still the primary focus in Behavior [10.83], but subsidiary concerns
about the nature of thinking are beginning to creep in. By the time we get
to Behaviorism [10.85] the book has become a fullscale defence of a
‘behaviourist’ philosophy of mind (the exact same progression can be
traced in both Hull and Skinner’s writings).
It may seem that all this was overturned by the transition to
cybernetics, but as Volker Henn points out, the history of cybernetics
really begins with Maxwell and Bernard [10.64], 174ff; cf. [10.18] 8if). The
publication of ‘Behavior, Purpose, and Teleology’ [10.77] rnarks the
consummation rather than reorientation of a prolonged conceptual
evolution: viz., of the notion of machine qua homeostatic system that
employs negative feedback to regulate its operations. (This is already
clearly implicit in the passage from Conditioned Reflexes [10.75], quoted
above.)
According to cybernetics, purposive behaviour is that which is
‘controlled by negative feedback’ in the ‘attainment of a goal’ (see
[10.77]). We must be careful here, first, that we do not suppose that this
thesis instituted a sharp break from behaviourism,20 and second, that we
do not impute the naive materialist outlook which guided the founders
of behaviourism to all of their followers.21 Nor should we suppose that
the central theme of ‘Behavior, Purpose, and Teleology’—viz., the
relationship of teleological to causal explanation—had never before
been broached. In fact, this problem had been a focus of mechanist
concern for over three decades. What was primarily unique about
‘Behaviour, Purpose, and Teleology’ was rather the manner in which the
authors sought to render teleological explanation scientifically
respectable by rendering the feedback mechanisms in ‘purposive’
systems subject to the laws of causality. But far from just rewriting the
logical form of teleological explanation (in order to bring out what they
saw as its fundamental contrast with the antecedent—consequent form
of causal laws), there are several points which stand out in the
cybernetic analysis of ‘purpose’ or ‘goal’.
To begin with, there are the central claims that ‘purposive’ behaviour
be defined in terms of the goal-directed movements of a system
interacting with its environment, where the goal itself is said to be a part
of the environment with which the system interacts. The system is thus
controlled by internal and external factors, and the existence of a goal is a
necessary condition for the attribution of purposive behaviour. But ‘goals’
on the cybernetic model are simply the ‘final condition’ towards which a
system is directed.
This represents a radical change in the meaning of ‘purposive’ or
‘goal-directed behaviou’. In purposive behaviour, the relevant goal can
be far removed, or even non-existent, without undermining the
purposiveness of that behaviour. Indeed, it even makes sense to speak
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of purposive behaviour occurring ‘for its own sake’ (as, e.g., in the case
of singing (see [10.79], [10.80])). Moreover, the internal relations which
bind the concept of purpose to those of consciousness, cognition, belief
and volition, are rendered external. Hence the upshot of Rosenblueth,
Wiener and Bigelow’s argument is that there is no logical obstacle to
describing cybernetic systems as ‘purposive’, even though they can
exercise no choice, cannot be said to be trying to attain their goal, or
even aware that such is their goal (as, e.g., in the case of guided
missiles).
There is, of course, nothing to stop the mechanist from introducing a
technical (cybernetic) notion of ‘purpose’ or ‘goal’, by which will be
understood the state of equilibrium that the feedback mechanisms of a
homeostatic system are designed or have evolved to maintain. But, as
with the case of eliminative materialist theories, if the logico-grammatical
distinction between ‘purposive’ and ‘caused behaviour’ is undermined,
the result is not a new understanding of but rather, the abandonment of
‘voluntary behaviour’ and the creation of yet another misleading
homonym.
Perhaps the most important aspect of cybernetics to bear in mind when
assessing its significance for psychology is its continuity with
behaviourism. Rosenblueth and Wiener insisted that:
if the term purpose is to have any significance in science, it must be
recognizable from the nature of the act, not from the study of or
from any speculation on the structure and nature of the acting
object…[Hence] if the notion of purpose is applicable to living
organisms, it is also applicable to non-living entities when they
show the same observable traits of behavior.
([10.76], 235)
As a corollary to this, they articulated the standard behaviourist thesis
that multiple observations are needed to verify the existence of purposive
behaviour (Ibid., 236). The judgement that an agent is is said to be an
inductive hypothesis which, as such, must be supported by evidence. Most
importantly, the theory remained committed to the continuum picture of
purposive behaviour, now said to be governed by the ‘orders of
prediction’ displayed by a system.
In typical Cartesian fashion, Rosenblueth, Wiener and Bigelow
argued that:
It is possible that one of the features of the discontinuity of
behavior observable when comparing humans with other high
mammals may lie in that the other mammals are limited to
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predictive behavior of low order, whereas man may be capable
potentially of quite high orders of prediction.
([10.77], 223)
Reflex acts and tropisms can indeed be seen to be purposive (albeit of a
lower order), complex actions are treated as nested hierarchies of bodily
movements, and consciousness cannot be a necessary condition for
purposive behaviour. For the theory does not distinguish between
mechanical and biological systems; hence consciousness must be emergent
and epiphenomenal (Ibid., 235; see [10.78]).
There are a number of important objections that have been raised
against the cybernetic analysis of ‘purposive behaviour’ by AI scientists as
well as philosophers (see [10.55]). From the standpoint of the former, the
root of these problems lies, not in its mechanist orientation but rather, in
the absence of ‘a mechanistic analogy of specifically psychological
processes, a cybernetic parallel of the mind/body distinction’ ([10.57],
107). This lacuna is to be filled by the cognitivist distinction between
embodied schemata and their neurophysiological components. These
‘internal representations’ are models of reality which ‘mediate between
stimulus and response in determining the behavior of the organism as a
whole’ ([10.56], 58). An organism uses these ‘encoded descriptions’ of its
environment to guide its actions, and it is this which accounts for the
purposiveness of its behaviour: not the misguided cybernetic supposition
that there must be a goal which is a part of the environment with which a
system interacts.
Assuming a fundamental analogy between computer programs and
these ‘internal representations’, the crux of the post-computational
version of the mechanist thesis lies in the premiss that, ‘Insofar as a
machine’s performance is guided by its internal, perhaps idiosyncratic
model of the environment, the overall performance is describable in
intensional terms’ ([10.57], 128).22 The AI scientist endeavours to provide a
mechanist account of purposive behaviour by postulating a species of
‘action plans’, neurally embodied, that are ‘closely analogous to the sets of
instructions comprising procedural routines within a computer program’.
That is, internal representations both of ‘the goal or putative end-state of
an intention’ and a possible plan of action for bringing about that state
([10. ], 134; cf. [10. ]).
Although this argument is committed to the (remote) possibility of
discovering the neurophysiological mechanisms of these internal
models, and thus of the discovery of causally sufficient conditions for
purposive behaviour, all of the emphasis is on the manner in which
these models guide an agent’s behaviour (see [10.57]). While post-
computational mechanists are committed, therefore, to the logical
possibility of reducibility, they need not regard this as anything more
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than a distant prospect. Hence, the much-celebrated shift from bottom-
up to top-down approaches, i.e., to the computer simulation of the
internal representations that guide purposive behaviour. For ‘We can
only postulate such models on behavioral grounds, and hypothesize
that they correspond to actual neurophysiological mechanisms’
([10.56], 60).
On this picture, the ‘explanatory power of a machine model of
behavior depends on the extent to which the details of the underlying
information-processing are functionally equivalent to the psychological
processes actually underlying behavior’ ([10.57], 144). Once the
mechanics of human and animal purposive behaviour have been
discovered, it will be seen that philosophical objections to the mechanist
analysis of the ‘continuum of purposive behaviour’ are vacuous. Not
because intentional and volitional concepts are eliminable, but because
there is room for both purposive and causal categories in the explanation
of human behaviour. The problem is, however, that this very premiss is
denied by reductionism.
For all the technical sophistication of AI, it is interesting to see how
little it has moved beyond the terms of Descartes’ original argument.
Indeed, so much so that the mentalist overtones of cognitivist theories
have already sparked off strong eliminativist counter-movements in
connectionism and neuropsychology. But the very fact that, for three
centuries now, psychology has been dominated by these ceaseless
‘paradigm-revolutions’, with neither side able to refute Descartes’
attack on the continuum picture, suggests that it is the framework
established by Descartes’ argument which needs to be addressed, not
its results. That is, that the resolution of the problem created by mind/
body dualism lies in the province of conceptual clarification as opposed
to empirical theories: philosophy as opposed to psychology. And
philosophy’s chief concern here is with the persisting influence of the
continuum picture: with the crucial premiss that all actions, animal
and human, are complex sequences of movements brought about by
hidden causes, the nature of which the science of psychology must
discover.
V THEORY OF MIND
The latest effort to deal with the problems raised by Cartesianism involves
a subtle attempt to retain the Cartesian picture of cognition while
avoiding the eliminativism and reductionism which, as we saw in the
preceding sections, has so dominated the evolution of psychology.
Consider the case of a child suddenly becoming aware of its mother’s
feelings and interacting with her accordingly, or a child beginning to use
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gestures or symbols to signal its intention. Cognitivism has a ready
explanation for this type of phenomenon: the child’s mind was busy all
the while observing and recording regularities. What looks like a sudden
moment of insight or development is really the end-result of preconscious
inferences the child has drawn in which he has mapped causes onto
effects. (E.g., ‘Whenever S has this look on its face x invariably follows’,
or,‘If I do x then y will happe’, or,‘If S believes x then S will φ’.) The
argument is not committed to the premiss that beliefs, desires or
intentions cause actions; only to the thesis that the child treats beliefs,
desires or intentions as the causes of actions, which as such purportedly
amounts to the claim that the child has formulated a theory of mind.
We are not supposed to worry overly about the use of theory here.
Nothing terribly scientistic is intended (although one might feel otherwise
when one reads the five points comprising the theory of mind which the
child is supposed to have acquired: viz., (i) the mind is private; (2) mind is
distinct from body; (3) the mind represents reality; (4) minds are
possessed by others; and (5) thoughts are different from things (see
[10.89]; [10.86] Wellman 1990)). But really, the use of the term is only
meant to draw attention to the fact that in order for a child to be able to
predict another agent’s actions on the basis of his beliefs, the child must
already possess such concepts as self and person or desire and intention.
And, of course, the child must possess the concept of causation. So why,
then, is the theory of mind thesis so drawn to the use of ‘theory’ to
describe its thesis?
The answer is that the argument treats the ability to predict an agent’s
actions on the basis of his beliefs as a sub-category of the ability to predict
events in general. That is, to predict S’s actions on the basis of S’s
intentions, desires or beliefs is just a special case of predicting that x will
cause y. The actual theory which the child must construct is simply the
framework filling out the conditions of this ‘special case’. The emphasis
here is on treating human behaviour as a different kind of phenomenon
from physical. Intentions, desires and beliefs are postulated because they
prove to be such useful constructs for predicting human—and only
human—behaviour (where this, too, is something the child must learn;
i.e., at first he blurs the lines between human actions and physical events,
or between human and animal behaviour, but he soon learns the
ineffectiveness of using mental constructs to predict the latter types of
phenomena). But prediction is prediction, whether it be in regards to
human actions or physical events, i.e., regularities must be observed,
causal connections perceived.23
This is precisely what the argument is driving at when it talks of
how ‘a theory provides a causal-explanatory framework to account for,
make understandable, and make predictable phenomena in its
domain’ (Ibid., 7). We can see how this is supposed to work by looking
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more closely at the actual type of theory which the child is supposed to
create.24 The process of constructing such a theory is said to take place
on two planes: the child is making discoveries about itself at the same
time that it is observing regularities in the actions of other human
beings. So first, the child has to discover that it is a self, and then, that
another is an other. To do this the child has to discover that intentional
actions are not reflexes, i.e., that there are two basic kinds of
movements in the realm of human behaviour. We get a residue of the
orthodox Cartesian account of ‘privileged access’ in the emphasis on a
child’s learning that it can manipulate objects—or its caretakers—and
extrapolating from this the concepts of self and object; or learning what
its own beliefs, desires or intentions are, and then, what beliefs, desires
or intentions are. While all this is going on, the child is busy observing
the difference between the way its caretakers and other humans move
about and the way inanimate objects are moved. In this sense, the
discovery of the distinction between voluntary and involuntary
behaviour is seen as a complex synthesis of self, social and object
perception.
We should, perhaps, be more careful about using the term ‘discover’;
for according to the theory of mind, it is not so much that the child
observes that voluntary movements are different from involuntary as
that the child discovers that it is more useful, when interacting with
humans, to make this distinction. That is, it is not so much that the child
discovers what intentional behaviour is as that it discovers the value of
postulating beliefs, desires or intentions for predicting human
behaviour. In so doing, the child is said to realize that other agents have
minds. For since beliefs, desires and intentions are not visible, the child
treats them as hidden causes of behaviour. That is, the child establishes
for itself that beliefs, desires and intentions are mental entities. It
establishes that the difference between two seemingly identical actions
done with different beliefs, desires or intentions must reside in the
concealed mental causes.
As we saw in the preceding sections, mechanism soon discovered
that the distinction between voluntary and involuntary movement
must be more complex than this brief sketch suggests. The child must
also discover the importance of postulating purposes, and goals, and
decisions, and choice, and effort. The child must discover that
voluntary actions, unlike reflexes or accidents, are somehow willed
and not externally caused. The child must determine that, like
ordinary causes, an agent can have a belief, a desire or an intention in
advance of acting on it, but unlike ordinary causes, an agent can form a
belief, a desire or an intention without necessarily acting on it; i.e., the
child must discover that beliefs, desires and intentions can be treated
as causing but not as forcing actions. And unlike the case of ordinary
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causes, the child must learn that only he can know what his beliefs,
desires or intentions are.
The entrance of language—or rather, the entry into language—is
thought to add still more complexity into the child’s construction of a
theory of mind. To begin with, the child must learn how to map his
beliefs, desires and intentions onto words. He must learn the effect of
using avowals of belief, desire or intention on others. As the child gets
more cognitively sophisticated, he learns how to use expressions of
belief, desire or intention to conceal his real feelings or intentions.
Verbal habits or routines can then begin to take over, so that language
becomes, not just a vehicle for deception, but an actual barrier to
genuine communication. The child also learns how to read things into
other agents’ avowals. It must learn that beliefs, desires and intentions
can be the grounds for judging the morality of an action: an element
which forces the child to sharpen his ‘fundamental, ontological
distinction… between internal mental phenomena on the one hand
and external physical and behavioral phenomena on the other’
([10.89], 13).
The more one reads about this ‘fundamental ontological distinction’,
the more apparent it becomes that the theory of mind thesis rests on a
subtle tension. The very premiss that the ability to recognize another
agent’s beliefs, desires or intentions—to grasp that other agents have
beliefs, desires and intentions—amounts to the construction of a causal-
explanatory framework, turns on the presupposition that the ability to
predict an agent’s actions on the basis of his beliefs, desires or intentions is
a sub-category of prediction in general. But in effect, all of the above
contrasts represent an attempt to divorce intention from prediction. That
is, the ‘theory’ which the child must construct is one which carefully
marks the various distinctions between predicting an agent’s behaviour
on the basis of his beliefs, desires or intentions, and predicting causal
events.
Thus, the child must learn that when an agent says ‘I’m going to φ ’ he
is not making a prediction which is akin to ‘It’s going to rain’. If an agent
says ‘I’m going to φ’ in all sincerity, and then fails to do so because
something prevented him, that doesn’t mean his intention was wrong (as
is the case if he predicts it is going to rain and we get sunny skies
instead). More fundamentally, a child does not learn what his beliefs,
desires or intentions are inductively. He neither infers from his own
behaviour that he had the intention to φ, nor does he observe that
whenever he forms the intention to φ he invariably φs (in the way that he
observes how the same effects result from the same cause). He does not
discover that, should he want to φ, all he has to do is form the intention
and the state of his φing will subsequently occur. The child learns that
when he says ‘I’m going to φ’ he is committing himself to a course of
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action, i.e., that the act of uttering these words arouses certain
expectations in his listener as to how he will behave. He learns that,
should an agent fail to φ after announcing his intention to do so, this
may indicate the presence of countervailing factors, or it might signify
that the agent changed his mind, but whatever the reason, it licenses the
demand for some explanation as to why the agent failed to φ (without
entailing that there must be an answer). That is not to say that one
cannot be wrong about one’s beliefs, desires or intentions. But the child
learns that to be wrong about about one’s beliefs, desires or intentions is
a very particular language game. It is not at all like being wrong about
the weather. It suggests hidden motives, or that one is driven by forces
or factors of which one is unconscious, or that one suddenly has a new
insight into one’s own behaviour or needs.
The theory of mind trades on the fact that there is often (but not
necessarily) a temporal relation between intending to φ and φing. If an
agent decides at t to φ at t1 and then does so there is clearly a temporal
relation between his initial decision and subsequent behaviour. But
that neither entails that there is a causal relation between two events—
a mental and a physical—nor that we construe an agent’s behaviour in
these terms. For we must be careful to distinguish between the
temporal relation between the time (if there is one) at which an agent
formed the intention and the time at which he acted, and the rule of
grammar which stipulates that this action represents the satisfaction of
this intention. It is the rule of grammar ‘The intention to φ is satisfied
by the act of φing’ which governs our accounts of what counts as acting
in accord with the intention. But on the causal picture embraced by the
theory of mind, we would be forced to accept that whatever S does at t1
must be deemed the consequence of his intention to φ. If S ψs then his
intention to φ was satisfied by his act of ψing. Hence the child is
conceived as learning, not only that it is highly likely that an agent will
φ if he intends to φ, but that it is highly likely that φing represents the
satisfaction of the intention to φ! (see [10.55]).
Suppose we view a child’s burgeoning social awareness, however, not
as a species of causal perception, but something entirely—categorially—
different, i.e., a skill which demands a totally different grammar—for
example, the grammar of agency and intentionality as opposed to
causality—for its proper description. All of the above statements
outlining the ‘contrasts’ between predicting an agent’s actions on the
basis of his beliefs, desires, or intentions and predicting the effects of a
given cause can be seen as the rules which formulate this grammar. For
example, the above statement ‘The child learns that only he can know
what his intentions are’ exemplifies what Wittgenstein calls a
grammatical proposition: ‘“Only you can know if you had that intention.”
One might tell someone this when one was explaining the meaning of
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the word “intention” to him. For then it means: that is how we use it.
(And here “know” means that the expression of uncertainty is
senseless.)’ ([10.91], section 247) Treat this as an empirical proposition,
however, and you find yourself mired in sceptical problems: not just
with regard to third-person knowledge (viz., you can never be certain
that you know what another person intends), but even with respect to
first-person knowledge (unless one decides to hold fast—despite all the
evidence gathered in [10.87]—to the doctrine of privileged access to
one’s own mental states).
Remove the Cartesian starting point that predicting an agent’s
actions is a sub-category of prediction in general, and it is no longer
tempting to suppose that a child who knows what another agent
believes, wants or intends has inferred the existence of an antecedent
mental cause guiding that agent’s behaviour. That does not vitiate the
importance of the larger point that the theory of mind is making,
which is that to say that a child grasps another agent’s beliefs, desires
or intentions is to say that he grasps or even shares what they see or
feel, and can thus anticipate what they will do if given the opportunity.
But this, too, is a grammatical, not an empirical proposition; one might
tell someone this when explaining the meaning of the expression ‘to
grasp another agent’s beliefs, desires or intentions’. Likewise, the
theory of mind’s basic claim that to possess the concept of false belief a
child must possess the concepts of self, person, desire and intention is
a grammatical, not an empirical proposition or hypothesis. Whether it
is the right grammatical proposition is another matter: something
which can only be resolved by a philosophical, not a psychological
investigation.
It is important to note that, to know what another agent believes,
wants or intends does not entail that one must know what beliefs,
desires, or intentions are; for the criteria for saying ‘S knows what R
believes’ are very different from the criteria for saying that ‘S knows
what a “belief” is’. As the quotation marks indicate, the latter demands
the ability to speak a language. When a child learns how to describe the
beliefs, desires or intentions which guide an agent’s actions, what he
learns are the grounds for attributing such a belief, desire or intention
when explaining the nature of someone’s actions. He learns how
appropriate behaviour justifies but does not entail the attribution of
beliefs, desires or intentions. Thus, the child learns when it is correct to
cite those beliefs, desires, or intentions as one’s reasons for φing (e.g.
when justifying one’s actions or explaining someone else’s). And he
learns that the fact that one can appear to be acting intentionally without
having any definite intention in mind, or conversely, conceal one’s
beliefs, desires, or intentions, merely attests to the fact that such criterial
evidence is defeasible: not that in assigning beliefs, desires or intentions
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one is framing hypotheses or forming inductive generalizations about
the probable causes of S’s φing.
As far as the voluntary/involuntary distinction is concerned, we
might say that what the child learns is how, by describing an agent’s
beliefs, desires or intentions, the possibility that his behaviour was
caused or accidental is excluded. The attribution of beliefs, desires and
intentions ‘explains action’, not in the causal sense that it identifies the
factors that brought about someone’s behaviour, but in the constitutive
sense that it establishes the meaning or the significance of an action. If
beliefs, desires or intentions were hidden causes, then a statement like
‘The intention to φ is satisfied by the act of φing’ would be ‘hypothetical in
the sense that further experience can confirm or disprove the causal
nexus’ ([10.90], 120). And if that were the case, then it would indeed
make sense to speak, without qualification, of having beliefs, desires or
intentions without knowing what they were in the same way that one
can be ignorant of the causes of x, or of inferring, learning, suspecting or
being wrong about what one believes, wants, or intends. But ‘“I know
what I want, wish, believe, feel,…” (and so on through all the
psychological verbs) is either philosophers’ nonsense, or any rate not a
judgement a priori’ ([10.91], 221). That is, apart from such cases as when
an agent is undecided (and in that sense uncertain) as to which course of
action to pursue, or when prodding someone to question or confront
their real desires or beliefs, it is inappropriate to ask someone whether
he is certain that he knows what he believes, wants, or intends. For in
ordinary circumstances, how else could one respond to such a question
other than: my intention to φ is the intention that I should really φ? If a
further explanation of this assurance is wanted I would go on to say
‘and by “I” I mean myself, and by “φ” I mean doing this…’: ‘But these
are just grammatical explanations, explanations which create language.
It is in language that it’s all done’ ([10.], 143).
Wittgenstein’s point here is that, in ordinary circumstances, the only
response one can make to persistent doubt is to explain or reiterate the
rules of grammar which govern the use of belief, desire or intention. He is
not suggesting that an understanding of other agents’ beliefs, desires or
intentions can only be attributed to creatures that possess the ability to
speak a language. Nor is he seeking to inculcate scepticism; quite the
contrary, he is seeking to undermine epistemological scepticism by
demonstrating that the issue that concerns us here is not whether we can
ever be certain that S can φ (where φ might be think, or feel, or intend, or
understand, or mean, etc.), but how we describe what S is doing or what S
understands. In paradigmatic contexts this distinction is (typically) of no
concern; it is in the borderline cases, and especially, in primitive contexts,
where it becomes easy to confuse the question of whether S’s behaviour
satisfies the criteria for describing him as φing with the sceptical question
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of whether we can ever be certain that S is really or merely appears to be
doing so. This is the reason why Cartesianism has become such a
dominant force in comparative primatology and developmental
psychology, and why both behaviourism and cognitivism—i.e., the denial
of higher mental processes or the assignment of these higher mental
processes to the preconscious—have flourished in these domains. But far
from lamenting the indecisiveness which seems to characterize these
discussions, we might see this uncertainty as a crucial aspect of
psychological concepts.
This last point demands clarification. One of the more glaring
problems with the theory of mind is that the terms of the discussion
seem so remote from the reality of an infant’s behaviour. For example,
we are asked to accept, not just that a baby observes regularities, but
even, that a baby makes observations. The baby does not just suck
whatever comes into its purview; it discovers by trial and error which
things in its world are suckable; it frames hypotheses as to the class of
suckable objects and then performs experiments to test its hypotheses. The
child who is sharing or initiating joint attention is actually constructing
laws of human behaviour. And indeed, the human infant, virtually from
birth, is predicting events; what changes as it develops is not this innate
scientistic drive, but the power of the constructs whereby it makes its
predictions.
It is little wonder that this picture of prediction (of going beyond the
information given) summons up a thesis like the theory of mind. For it
seems to make little sense to speak of an agent as predicting something
unless he possesses the requisite concepts involved. Thus, the theory of
mind insists that, if we are dealing with predicting physical events, then
at the very least the subject must possess the concepts of causation,
object and object permanence; if we are talking about predicting social
events, then the subject must possess the concepts of self, agent,
intention and desire. But we lose sight here of what a rarefied concept
the concept of concept is. A 2-year-old can do some very extraordinary
things which, as Tomasello shows, bear fundamentally on what the
theory of mind thesis is trying to explain (see [10.88]). For example, a 2-
year-old can share and can even direct attention. But does a 2-year-old
jointly attending to something possess the concept of joint attention?
Does he even know or understand that other agents have thoughts or
desires which may differ from his own? Does he possess the concepts of
self and person and intention? And most important of all, are these
sceptical questions?
Once again we are in danger of straying too far from what we are
observing: of reading too much into a child’s primitive interactive
behaviour. To be sure, there are significant events in the child’s
development, cognitive feats which stand out as ‘developmental
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milestones’. But does a child’s becoming aware of its mother’s feelings
and interacting with her accordingly satisfy the criteria for saying that it
possesses the concept of person? Does ‘passing’ the Wimmer—Perner
test satisfy the criteria for saying that it possesses the concept of false
belief? How else, the Cartesian wants to say, could the child perform
these acts unless he possessed these concepts, or at the very least, was
capable of representing human behaviour in different terms from
physical. Granted, it is always possible—irrevocably possible—that we
are misrepresenting the child’s representation. But the one thing that is
certain, according to Cartesianism, is that the child’s behaviour must be
concept-driven.
It would take us too far outside the scope of this chapter to chart the
origins and conceptual problems involved in the view of concepts as
the ‘repositories of featural analysis’ on which this argument rests.
What principally matters to us here is that this view of concepts goes
hand-in-hand with the view that social awareness is grounded in a
theory of mind. Indeed, in recent years concept-formation has itself
come to be seen as a species of theory construction. But these problems
disappear when we regard an agent’s behaviour, not as evidence of the
concept which he has formed, but as constituting a criterion for saying
that he possesses the concept φ. That is, when we view the statement
‘Doing x, y, z constitutes the criterion for saying that “S possesses the
concept φ”’, or more generally, ‘Saying that S possesses the concept
=Saying that S can do x, y, z’ is a rule of grammar, not an empirical
proposition. For this means that the statement ‘S possesses the concept
φ’ does not describe or refer to a mental entity but rather, is used to
attribute certain abilities to S.
For example, to say that S possesses the concept number is to say that S
can do sums, can apply arithmetical operations, can explain what a
number is, can correct his own or someone else’s mistakes, etc. Doing all
these things does not count as evidence that S possesses the (or a) concept
of number; rather, it satisfies the criteria for saying ‘S possesses the
concept number’. Similarly, if a child hides the treat which his mother has
given him in the hopes of getting another from his father, this is not
evidence that he has acquired the concept of pretence—which, according
to the theory of mind, entails a theoretical understanding of desire and
intention, and possibly, of belief—but rather, a criterion for saying that the
child is capable of pretence. Where the theory of mind has been so
valuable is in drawing attention to the importance of the conceptual
relations enshrined in the above statement. For this is not an empirical
proposition: a description of the end-result of the step-by-step process
whereby a child has built up a complex construct like ‘pretence’ (in the
same way, for example., that one could describe the mechanics of a
pattern recognition system). It is rather a grammatical proposition,
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stipulating that it makes no sense to speak of a child as pretending to φ unless
it also makes sense to describe the child as intending to φ, wanting x, etc.
Thus, theorists of mind have been actively engaged in a twofold
enterprise: that of mapping the conceptual relations entailed by the
application of some psychological concept, and then studying a child’s
behaviour to ascertain whether it satisfies the necessary criteria or
perhaps can be said to satisfy a still more primitive version of the concept
in question.
To insist that a subject’s behaviour fails to satisfy the criteria for
applying some concept, for example, that directing its mother’s
attention to an object does not satisfy the criteria for saying of a 2-year-
old child that it possesses the concept of person, does not entail that this
behaviour can only be described in causal terms, i.e., that the child did
not, after all, direct its mother’s attention. Wittgenstein makes a point
about the origins of causal knowledge which is highly pertinent here.
There is, Wittgenstein observes, ‘a reaction which can be called “reacting
to the cause”’ ([10.94]). Consider the case of a small child following a
string to see who is pulling at it. If he finds him, how does he know that
he, his pulling, is the cause of the string’s moving? Does he establish this
by a series of experiments? The answer is No: this is rather a primitive
case of what is called ‘seeing that x was the cause of y’. Only a strong
Cartesian bias could induce one to construe this phenomenon as a
manifestation of a form of induction. But in order to make sense of the
notion of the child exhibiting in such behaviour his mind’s ‘pre-
linguistic causal inferences’, it would also have to make sense to speak
of the child’s exhibiting pre-linguistic manifestations of doubt: of
making mistakes in his causal reasoning and taking steps to guard
against error, of testing, comparing, and correcting previous
judgements. But none of his behaviour satisfies the criteria for
attributing these abilities: all he did was react to the cause.
The language game played with ‘cause’ exemplifies Wittgenstein’s
point in Last Writings about how:
A sharper concept would not be the same concept. That is: the
sharper concept wouldn’t have the value for us that the blurred one
does. Precisely because we would not understand people who act
with total certainty when we are in doubt and uncertain.
([10.93], Section 267)
For example, the very notion of reacting to a cause is blurred; the child saw
that x caused y, whereas the caterpillars in Loeb’s experiments merely
reacted to the light. Just as the cases where it is appropriate to speak of a
conditioned response merge into circumstances where it is appropriate to
speak of seeing that x caused y, so, too, the cases where it is appropriate to
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speak of seeing that x caused y merge into circumstances where it is
appropriate to speak of knowing that x will cause y. We can indeed speak of
a continuum here, therefore, but it is grammatical, not cognitive: a
language game ranging from reacting to a cause to counterfactual reasoning.
This grammatical continuum demands ever more complex behaviour to
license the attribution of ever more complex abilities and skills. At the
lowest end of this spectrum is that behaviour which satisfies the criteria
for what is called ‘reacting to a cause’. At this primitive level, S’s
behaviour satisfies the criteria for describing him as being aware of the
cause of y, but his behaviour comes nowhere close to satisfying the criteria
for saying that he possesses the concept of cause. As the child acquires
linguistic abilities, we teach him how to use ‘cause’ and ‘effect’. It is his
growing understanding of causal relations, as reflected in his growing
mastery of the family of causal terms that satisfies the criteria for
describing him as possessing the concept of cause, i.e., as possessing the
ability to infer and predict events, to doubt whether y was caused by x and
to verify that x causes y. We continue to move up the grammatical
continuum as the subject learns the importance of observation and
experiment, culminating in the advanced abilities to engage in
counterfactual reasoning or Gedankenexperimente, to construct theories and
models, and theories of theory and model making.
The important point here is that, rather than following Descartes’ lead
and beginning with the paradigm of the scientist—of the scientist’s
mind—and reading this into all the lower forms of behaviour as we work
our way backwards through a descending level of cognitive abilities, so
that the mere reaction to a cause is construed as manifesting a ‘pre-
conscious causal inference’, we proceed by clarifying the relation between
primitive expressive behaviour and primitive uses of psychological
concepts, and show how the roots of causal inference lie, not in ‘mental
processing’ but rather, in these primitive uses:
The origin and the primitive form of the language game is a
reaction; only from this can more complicated forms develop.
Language—I want to say—is a refinement, ‘im Anfang war die
Tat’…it is characteristic of our language that the foundation on
which it grows consists in steady ways of living, regular ways of
acting… We have an idea of which ways of living are primitive,
and which could only have developed out of these … The simple
form (and that is the prototype) of the cause-effect game is
determining the cause, not doubting.
([10.94])
Similarly, the roots of social understanding lie in primitive reactions and
interactions, e.g. in the fact that at 9 months old a child can be
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conditioned to follow a caregiver’s gaze and to share a caregiver’s
emotions; at 12 months the child begins to follow the caregiver’s gaze
spontaneously, and shortly after this, to initiate and direct joint
attention; while at much the same time it begins to use imperative
pointing, and soon after this, declarative pointing. But the fact that the
infant is able to look where another agent wants, to attend to directed
objects and situations or direct another where to look, or to use certain
gestures and then conventionalized sounds to initiate exchanges, does
not in itself constitute theoretical or pre-theoretical knowledge. The
infant is learning how to participate in very particular kinds of social
practices (giving and requesting objects, playing peek-a-boo, asking
and answering simple questions). As the child’s mastery of these
practices advances, it makes increasing sense to describe the child as
‘intending or trying to φ’, as ‘looking or hoping for x’, as ‘thinking or
believing p’, and so on.
In other words, what people say and do is what constitutes the
justifying grounds for psychological ascriptions. Scepticism about other
minds stems from misconstruing this logical relation as inductive
evidence. It turns on Descartes’ idea that what we see are ‘colourless
movements’ from which we infer a hidden cause. But we do not see mere
behaviour, we see, for example, pain behaviour, i.e., that behaviour which
satisfies the criteria governing the application of ‘pain’. The sense in
which pain behaviour ‘falls short of certainty’ is solely that it does not
entail that someone is in pain. But this has nothing to do with perceptual
limitations.
Descartes capitalized on the fact that psychological concepts cannot be
applied to lower lifeforms. Unfortunately, he misconstrued the nature of
this ‘cannot’. For these limits are imposed by logical grammar, not
experience. Descartes was quite right to draw attention to the importance
of the fact that animals do not utter avowals: but for reasons that have
nothing to do with his animal automaton hypothesis. The application of
psychological concepts is intimately bound up with the ability to speak a
language: to describe one’s state of mind, express one’s desires and
intentions, report on one’s feelings (or conceal them). But that does not
mean that animals are incapable of manifesting primitive expressive
behaviour; for a dog’s howling, like a baby’s, may indeed be a criterion for
saying that it is in pain.
The result of misconstruing the grammatical propositions or rules
governing the use of psychological concept words as empirical
propositions has been three centuries of conflict over whether intentions,
desires, beliefs, etc. in some way cause the actions they are thought to
accompany or precede, and whether these mental phenomena
correspond to or are caused by neural events. The persisting assumption
has been that we start off with these mental events and then try to
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discover the cerebral mechanisms with which they are correlated or by
which they are caused. But the lesson to be learnt from studying the
mechanist/vitalist debates is that the real evolution of this psycho-
physical parallel thesis was the exact opposite: it was by proceeding from
the premiss that all involuntary movements are caused by external and
internal stimuli, and the persisting desire to restore the continuum picture
by reducing voluntary actions to the same terms, that the notion of
‘mental cause’ was created: the conception of intentions, desires, beliefs as
mental events that bring about actions precisely because they initiate or
are isomorphic with the cerebral drive train that provides the motor
power. The goal of this chapter has been, not just to chart the development
of these ideas, but more importantly, to reverse this way of thinking: to
establish the unique and non-causal character of mental concepts in order
to clarify why it is so misleading to assume that ‘psychology treats of
processes in the psychical sphere, as does physics in the physical’ ([10.91],
section 571). Thus, my intention here has been, not to praise Descartes’
legacy, but to bury it: to relegate the mechanist/vitalist debates once and
for all to the history of psychological ideas.
NOTES
1 It is highly significant that Russell should have written an introduction to
Lange’s History of Materialism, in which he states that: ‘Ordinary scientific
probability suggests…that the sphere of mechanistic explanation in regard to
vital phenomena is likely to be indefinitely extended by the progress of
biological knowledge’ ([10.38], xvii–xviii).
2 Du Bois-Reymond followed up on his argument with an expanded account in
1880 of the ‘seven world problems’. In addition to the matter force and brain
thought problems he now included the origins of motion, life, sensation and
language, the teleological design of nature and the problem of free will (see
[10.23]).
3 Spencer’s explanation of the ‘continuous adjustment of internal relations to
external relations’ also reflects the influence of Liebig’s views ([10.40]).
4 In Animal Chemistry he warned that:
The higher phenomena of mental existence cannot, in the present state
of science, be referred to their proximate, and still less to their ultimate,
causes. We only know of them, that they exist; we ascribe them to an
immaterial agency, and that, in so far as its manifestations are
connected with matter, an agency, entirely distinct from the vital force
with which it has nothing in common.
([10.25], 138)
5 As indeed do cognitivists, albeit for vastly different reasons. In their eyes
Bernard’s metaphor manifests the latent tendency to regard biological
phenomena ‘in terms of categories whose primary application is in the
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domain of knowledge’ [10.19]. It thus illustrates the inadequacy of physico-
chemical concepts to explain such biological phenomena as embryological
development; for as Bernard himself was to explain:
In saying that life is the directive idea or the evolutive force of the
living being, we express simply the idea of a unity in the succession of
all the morphological and chemical changes accomplished by the germ
from the beginning to the end of life. Our mind grasps this unity as a
conception which is imposed upon it and explains it as a force; but the
error consists in thinking that this metaphysical force is active in the
manner of a physical force.
[([10.37], 214)
But where the cognitivist sees the organism itself as the intended bearer of
Bernard’s directive idée, Bergson had earlier insisted that it is a ‘principle of
interpretation’: in modern usage, a paradigm whereby a scientific community
construes its data (Ibid., 148–9). As we shall see, this is a recurring theme in
this whole debate. One suspects, however, that for a proper understanding of
how Bernard himself viewed his directive idée, one should look at the
psychistic theory of growth whose antecedents date back to Proutt and Bichat
(see [10.27], 238–9, 250).
6 Even Turing’s attempt to discover the algorithms determining the evolution
of plant life betrays an underlying goal of laying classical vitalist themes
to rest.
7 A young player upon the harpsichord or a dancer, is, at first very thoughtful
and solicitous about every motion of his fingers, or every step he makes while
the proficients or masters of these arts perform the very same motions, not
only more dexterously, and with greater agility, but almost without any
reflexion or attention to what they are about’ ([10.47], 79).
8 Cf. Herbert Mayo’s argument that:
there are many voluntary actions, which leave no recollection the instant
afterwards of an act of the will. I allude to those, which from frequent
repetition have become habits. Philosophers are generally agreed, that
such actions continue to be voluntary, even when the influence of the will
is so faint as to wholly escape detection. We are therefore not authorized to
conclude that instinctive actions are not voluntary merely because we are
not conscious of willing their performance.
([10.47], 125)
9 According to Lotze:
When, under the influence of the soul life an association has once been
formed between a mere physical impression of a stimulus and a
movement which is not united with that stimulus by the mere relation of
structure and function, and when that association has been firmly
established, this mechanism can continue the activity without requiring
the actual assistance of intelligence.
([10.47], l64)
10 After describing in ‘The Spinal Cord a Sensational and Volitional Centre’
(1858) how he had replicated Pflüger’s experiment, Lewes concluded:
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If the animal is such an organized machine that an external impression
will produce the same action as would have been produced by sensation
and volition, we have absolutely no ground for believing in the sensibility
of animals at all, and we may as well at once accept the bold hypothesis of
Descartes that they are mere automata. If the frog is so organized, that
when he cannot defend himself in one way, the internal mechanisms will
set going several other ways—if he can perform, unconsciously, all actions
which he performs consciously, it is surely superfluous to assign any
consciousness at all. His organism may be called a self-adjusting
mechanism, in which consciousness finds no more room than in the
mechanism of a watch.
([10.47], 168)
11 Thus Lewes explains:
The Actions cannot belong to the mechanical order so long as they are the
actions of a vital mechanism, and so long as we admit the broad
distinction between organisms and anorganisms. Whether they have the
special character of Consciousness or not, they have the general character
of sentient actions, being those of a sentient mechanism. And this becomes
the more evident when we consider the gradations of the phenomena.
Many, if not all, of those actions which are classed under the involuntary
were originally of the voluntary class—either in the individual or his
ancestors; but having become permanently organized dispositions—the
pathways of stimulation and reaction having been definitely established—
they have lost that volitional element (of hesitation and choice) which
implies regulation and control.
([10.53], 416–17).
12 Thus William Graham explained how:
consciousness is only, as Professor Tyndall has termed it, an accidental
‘bye-product’—something over and above the full and fair physical result,
which by an accident, fortunate or otherwise, appeared to watch over and
register the whole series of physical processes, though these would have
bone on just as well in its absence.
([10.48], 122)
It is noteworthy in light of the interrelatedness of the various issues involved
in the mechanist/vitalist debate that he concluded: ‘In this case, thought or
consciousness would not consume any of the stock of energy; the law of
conservation of energy would not be threatened in its generality; and man
would be a true automaton, with consciousness added as a spectator, but not
as a director of the machinery’ (Ibid., 123; cf. [10.51], 240 ff.).
13 The closest one comes to even a hint of awareness of this issue is George
Paton’s insistence that ‘if these movements be not of a perceptive character
then there is no meaning in language, and we must give a new definition to
the term perception’ ([10.47], 154).
14 The failure to grasp this point marred Haller’s otherwise penetrating
observation in First Lines of Physiology:
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that the nature of the mind is different from that of the body, appears from
numberless observations; more especially from those abstract ideas and
affections of the mind which have no correspondence with the organs of
sense. For what is the colour of pride? or what the magnitude of envy or
curiosity?
([10.49] 11, p. 45)
But, of course, it is the human being who feels pride, envy and curiosity, not
his mind or brain.
15 The height of this absurdity was reached by T.L.W.Bischoff. Fearing recounts
how, in his ‘Einige Physiologisch-anatomische Beobachtungen aus einem
Enthaupeteten’ Bischoff states that:
he was especially concerned with the question of the persistence of
consciousness in the head segment [of recently executed criminals]. The
experiments were performed during the first minute after decapitation.
The results were wholly negative. The fingers of the experimenters were
thrust towards the eyes of the decapitated head, the word ‘pardon’ was
called into the ears, tincture of asafoetida was held to the nose, all with
negative results. Stimulation of the end of the severed spine did not result
in movement.
([10.47], 152)
16 In what reads as the vitalist anticipation of the objection from Watson cited at
the beginning of Section i above, Lewes maintained:
All inductions warrant the assertion that a bee has thrills propagated
throughout its organism by the agency of its nerves; and that some of
these thrills are of the kind called sensations—even discriminated
sensations. Nevertheless we may reasonably doubt whether the bee has
sentient states resembling otherwise than remotely the sensations,
emotions, and thoughts which constitute human Consciousness, either in
the general or the special sense of that term. The bee feels and reacts on
feelings; but its feelings cannot closely resemble our own, because the
conditions in the two cases are different. The bee may even be said to
think (in so far as Thought means logical combination of feelings), for it
appears to form Judgments in the sphere of the Logic of Feeling…
although incapable of the Logic of Signs… We should therefore say the bee
has Consentience, but not Consciousness—unless we accept
Consciousness in its general signification as the equivalent of Sentience.
([10.53], 409; cf. 434).
17 Interestingly, Erasmus Darwin had argued at the end of the eighteenth
century that animals are no less capable than man of reasoning (of
concatenating sensory ideas according to the laws of association ([10.62],
15.3). Indeed, the fact that an organism like the fruit fly often mistakes the
carrion flower for carrion is proof of its ability to sustain correct reasoning
(Ibid., 16.11).
18 ‘In tracing up the increase we found ourselves passing without break from the
phenomena of bodily life to the phenomena of mental life’ ([10.40], section 13).
19 All of the attention here has been fixed on the notion of purposiveness, but it
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bears noting in the sequel how the so-called ambiguity between ‘behaviour as
movement’ and ‘behaviour as action’ was becoming an established fact. When
Rosebleuth, Wiener, and Bigelow introduced cybernetics they could simply
assume without qualification that ‘By behavior is meant any change of an
entity with respect to its surroundings… [A]ny modification of an object,
detectable externally, may be denoted as behavior’ ([10.77], 18). It should be
noted, however, that this long-established usage of ‘behaviour’ was, in fact,
originally regarded as metaphorical.
20 Rosenblueth, Wiener and Bigelow insisted that their goal was ‘a uniform
behavioristic analysis [which] is applicable to both machines and living
organisms, regardless of the complexity of the behavior’ ([10.77], 18, 24, 22).
Cf. George:
It must be emphasized very strongly that cybernetics as a scientific
discipline is essentially consistent with behaviourism, and is indeed a
direct offshoot from it. Behaviourists, in essence, are people who have
always treated organisms as if they were machines.
([10.63], 32)
21 There is a tendency to rule that anyone straying from the orthodox materialist
course is automatically excluded from the behaviourist fold; an obvious
example is Tolman, but even a figure such as Hull, who expresses cybernetic
sentiments in Principles of Behavior (see [10.65], 26–7) is often regarded as only
a partial (i.e. neo-) behaviourist (and de facto ‘father’ of cybernetics). But what
is one to make of a figure such as Lashley (see [10.67])?
22 It should be noted that this argument marks a shift in focus from the subject of
machine intelligence to that of cognitive modelling. For the very fact that
these internal representations can be mechanically simulated, thereby
enabling us to describe cybernetic systems in purposive terms, might also
‘provide a key to understanding the way in which the corresponding [human
or animal] behavior is actually produced’ ([10.57] 142).
23 Since perception can also be treated as a constructive, or an inferential
process, this reference to causal perception does not need to be qualified.
24 Nativist arguments are ignored in what follows, but really they are just as
much a concern of this discussion. For the emphasis here is not on
construction, it is on cognition: on what the child must putatively know in
order to display the various abilities recorded by developmentalists.
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Glossary
GENERAL
ab initio—Latin, ‘from the beginning’.
absolute—From the Latin absolutus, meaning ‘the perfect’ or ‘completed’. The
term further means independent, fixed and unqualified, and stands opposed
to the relative, often as its negation; i.e., as that which is independent of
relation. At various times, principally in METAPHYSICS, it has been used to
describe time, space, value, truth and God, or the totality of what really exists
as a unitary system somehow both generating and explaining all apparent
diversity. It is associated with IDEALISM.
absolute space and time—The view that space and time exist independently of the
objects and events in them. This was NEWTON’S position which was rejected
by EINSTEIN, among others.
absolutist/relativist debate—Relativism is the position that there is no one correct
view of things. Relativists argue that views vary among individual people
and among cultures (‘cultural relativism’), and that there is no reliable way of
deciding who is right. This contrasts with absolutism, the view that there is an
objectively right view. Although the most common relativist views concern
morality, these terms also apply to ONTOLOGY and the question of the nature
of reality itself. Ontological relativists hold that there is no external fact about
what sorts of basic things exist: we decide how to categorize things, and what
will count as basic, depending on the context and manner of thinking that
suits us. By contrast, absolutists hold that there is a basic SUBSTANCE which
characterizes the unity of reality (i.e. LEIBNIZ’S ‘simple substances’ or
‘monads’). See RELATIVE TRUTH/RELATIVISM.
acquaintance and description, knowledge by—Popularized by RUSSELL, the
terms used to describe two ways in which objects are known. According to
him, we have ‘acquaintance’ with anything of which we are directly aware
(namely sense data). This is to be distinguished from knowledge by
description, which includes our knowledge of those whom we would
normally call our acquaintances. In the normal sense, I would claim to be
acquainted with a colleague; but according to Russell, my colleague is for me
the body and mind connected with certain sense data.
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GLOSSARY
ad hoc—Latin, ‘to this’, i.e., ‘specially for this purpose’. An ad hoc assumption
isone that is introduced illicitly in an attempt to save some position from a
contrary argument or counter example, intending to show that the position is
false. It is illicit because it is designed especially to accommodate the
argument or example, and has no independent support.
aesthetics—From the Greek aisthesis, ‘sensation’. This term, which was coined by
Baumgarten in the eighteenth century, has come to designate not the whole
domain of the sensible, but only that portion to which the term beauty may
apply. In a more general and contemporary sense, it refers to the
philosophical study of art, of our reactions to it, and of similar reactions to
things that are not works of art. Typical questions here are: What is the
definition of art? How can we judge aesthetic worth? Is this an OBJECTIVE
matter?
a fortiori—Latin, ‘from the stronger’. A phrase used to signify ‘all the more’ or ‘even
more certain’. If all men are mortal, then a fortiori all Englishmen—who constitute
a small sub-class of all men—must also be mortal.
agent—One who acts, or has acted, or is contemplating action. In ETHICS, it is
usually held to be a moral agent, i.e., one to whom moral qualities may be
ascribed and treated accordingly. The agent is generally a normal (even ideal)
adult: free and responsible with a certain degree of maturity, rationality and
sensitivity.
alchemy—The ancient art and science of transmutation; the precursor to modern
CHEMISTRY and metallurgy. It is also a mystical art (see MYSTICISM for the
transformation of consciousness, symbolized by the transmutation of base
metals into gold or silver. Drawing on the Hermetic tradition and Greco-
Egyptian ESOTERIC teachings, alchemy assumed its historical form by AD 4,
but it did not spread throughout Europe until the twelfth century.
algebra—The study of mathematical structure. Elementary algebra is the study of
NUMBER systems and their properties. Algebra solves problems in
arithmetic by using letters or SYMBOLS to stand for quantities and includes
CALCULUS, LOGIC, the theories of numbers, equations, FUNCTIONS and
combinations of these.
algorithm—A systematic procedure for carrying out a computation; any step-by-
step method for the solution of a particular type of problem.
analysis of variance (ANOVA)—A statistical method (see STATISTICS) for
making simultaneous comparisons between two or more means. An ANOVA
yields a series of values (F values) which can be statistically tested to
determine whether a significant relation exists between the experimental
variables.
analytic/synthetic—These terms were introduced by KANT, referring to the
difference between two kinds of judgement. Kant called a judgement analytic
when the ‘predicate was contained in the subject’; thus, for example, the
subject bachelors contains the predicate unmarried. Some might hold that this
distinction is better made in terms of sentences: a sentence is analytic when
the meaning of the subject of that sentence contains the meaning of the
predicate (i.e. is part of the definition of the subject). In other words, an
analytic sentence is one that is true merely because of the meanings of the
words. A synthetic truth is a sentence that is true but not merely because of the
meaning of the words. ‘Pigs don’t fly’ is true partially because of the meaning
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GLOSSARY
of the words, of course, but since the definition of pigs says nothing in the first
case about flying, the sentence is synthetically true. An analytically false
sentence is also possible as in ‘There is a married bachelor’.
In another sense, a statement is an analytic truth or falsehood if it can be
proved or disproved from definitions by means of only logical laws, and it is
synthetic if its truth or falsity can be established by other means. This was the
distinction postulated by FREGE, and followed by the logical positivists (see
POSITIVISM) for whom all the truths of mathematics and LOGIC are analytic.
analytic philosophy—A term covering a variety of philosophical schools which
emphasize language and share the view that the primary function of
philosophy is to clarify statements. It is usually associated with English-
speaking philosophers, and is contrasted with speculative or continental
philosophy. Some philosophers have regarded it as opposed to
METAPHYSICS but others have held metaphysical views. This includes
RUSSELL, who was one of its earliest adherents when the distinction first
arose in the first decades of this century.
anthropometry—Literally, the measurement of man, in terms of anatomical
height, girth, width, length, etc.
anti-realism—See REALISM.
a priori/a posteriori—Latin, ‘from before/from after’. In the early eighteenth
century, knowledge was called a priori if it was acquired by reason, not
observation, or by DEDUCTION, not INDUCTION. It is a posteriori if it can
be known on the basis of, and hence, after, sense-experience of the fact. The
terms are associated with KANT who claimed that a priori knowledge can be
known independently of any (particular) experience, i.e., every event has a
CAUSE.
Archimedes—(c. 287–212 BC) Greek mathematician, physicist and inventor; gener
ally regarded as the greatest mathematician of antiquity. His rigorous
geometrical technique of measuring curved lines, areas and surfaces
anticipated modern CALCULUS. He also laid the foundations of mechanics,
statics and hydrostatics.
Archimedes’ axiom—The order AXIOM for the real line that states that if a, and b
are real NUMBERS such that a < b/n for all natural numbers n, then a ഛ ο, or
equivalently, that for any positive a and b there is a positive integer n such that
a < nb, and thus that every real number is less than some natural number. This
is equivalent to the assertion that the real numbers are conditionally
complete. An infinitesimal is non-Archimedean as it is less than any positive
non-zero number.
Aristotle—(384–322 BC) Profoundly influential Greek philosopher and scientist.
He was PLATO’S student; like his teacher, he was centrally concerned with
knowledge of reality and of the right way to live. Unlike Plato, however, he
accepted the reality of the EMPIRICAL, changing world, and attempted to
discover what sort of understanding we must have in order to have
knowledge of it. He argued that individual things must be seen as belonging
to kinds of things, each of which has essential properties (see
ESSENTIALISM) that give it potential for change and development.
Investigation into the essential properties of humans can tell us what human
good is: he conceived it as a life lived in accord with the moral and intellectual
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virtues. Although he is recognized for beginning the systematic study of
LOGIC, Aristotle’s writings cover diverse areas in NATURAL SCIENCE and
philosophy.
artificial intelligence (AI)—An area of study in computer science and
psychologythat involves the building (or imaging) of machines, or
programming computers, to mimic certain complex intelligent human
activities. AI is of philosophical interest in so far as it might shed light on what
the human mind is like, and in so far as its successes and failures enter into
arguments about MATERIALISM.
assertion—FREGE introduced the assertion sign to indicate the difference
between asserting a PROPOSITION as true and merely naming a proposition
(i.e. in order to make an assertion about it, that it has such and such
consequences, or the like). RUSSELL and WHITEHEAD adopted the sign in
approximately Frege’s sense, and from this source, it has come into general
use. Russell requires that the sign be followed by a formula denoting a
proposition (see DENOTATION), or a truth value, while Frege requires that it
be followed by the syntactical name of such a formula. Some recent writers
omit the sign, either as understood, or on the grounds that the distinction is
illusory.
attribution theory—In social psychology, the study of the factors that determine
how people in everyday life situations come to assign CAUSES, particularly
for their own actions and those of others, and the HYPOTHESES arising from
that study. The analysis of action as analogous to experimental methods, was
first suggested by HEIDER, who remains influential on this theory.
Austin, J(ohn) L(angshaw)—English (Oxford) philosopher; a leading figure in
ORDINARY LANGUAGE PHILOSOPHY. He drew philosophical
conclusions from analyses of our uses of language in general, and of
philosophically relevant words.
automaton/automaton theory—From the Greek automatos, ‘self-moving’. An
automaton is a physical mechanism which exhibits seemingly goal-directed
behaviour, but is generally construed to be mindless, a mere machine
governed by the laws of physics and mechanics (i.e. a robot). The theory holds
that living organisms may be considered machines which primarily abide by
mechanistic laws. In METAPHYSICS, this theory is also known as
automatism and holds that both animal and human are automata. It was
propounded by DESCARTES who considered the lower animals to be pure
automata, and man, a machine controlled by a rational soul. Pure automatism
for both man and animal was advocated by LA METTRIE (1748), and
combined with EPIPHENOMENALISM, found its way into the nineteenth
century, in the work of Hodgson, HUXLEY and Clifford.
axiom—A basic statement for which no proof is required, and is a starting point,
or premiss, for deriving other statements. An axiomatic theory is one in which
all the claims of the theory are presented as theorems derivable from a
specified collection, the set (or system) of axioms, which are the axioms of the
theory. Axioms are often considered self-evidently true, as those of Euclidean
GEOMETRY were for a long time, or as constituting and/or contributing to
an implicit definition of its terms.
Ayer, A(lfred) J.—English philosopher, known mainly for his work in
EMPIRICISM and linguistic analysis. He rejected METAPHYSICS and
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confined the function of philosophy to analysis. His Language, Truth and Logic
(1936) presented logical POSITIVISM in a rigorous and influential way.
Bacon, Francis—English philosopher and scientist. He was also a legalist and
political figure (Baron Verulam [1618] and Viscount St Albans [1620]). Best
known for his work on scientific method, he is often considered the father of
modern science. In his attempts to establish a ‘first philosophy’, an axiomatic
body of truth as the foundation of science, he sought to restore man to
mastery over the natural world.
Barthez, Paul Joseph—French physician who introduced the VITALISM principle
in 1778.
Bayesian probability—The Bayesian approach to philosophical problems of
scientific method is based on the observation that belief is not a simple yes or
no matter, but involves gradations. Its fundamental principle can be stated as
follows: the degrees of belief of an ideally rational person conform to the
mathematical principles of PROBABILITY theory. According to this view,
many methodological puzzles (see METHODOLOGY) arise from a
preoccupation with all or nothing belief and may be resolved by means of a
more inclusive probabilistic LOGIC of partial belief.
behavioural science—A general label pertaining to sciences that study the
behaviour of organisms including psychology, sociology, social anthropology,
ethology and others. It is often used as synonym for social science.
behaviourism—Early in the twentieth century, many psychologists decided that
introspection was not a reliable basis for a science of the mind; instead they
decided to concentrate only on external, observable behaviour.
METHODOLOGICAL (psychological) behaviourism is the view that only
external behaviour should be investigated by science (see METHODOLOGY).
METAPHYSICAL or analytical behaviourism is the philosophical view that
public behaviour is all there is—that this is what we are talking about when
we refer to mental events or characteristics in others, and even ourselves (see
METAPHYSICS). It is a form of MATERIALISM, J.B.WATSON and
B.F.SKINNER were two American psychologists who were very influential in
arguing the first viewpoint.
Bell inequality—The mathematical condition that expresses the principle of no
HIDDEN VARIABLES. It was theorized by John Bell in the early 1960s and
refers to the lack of full agreement between QUANTUM MECHANICS and a
particular class of hidden variable theories. It is a component of ‘Bell’s
theorem’ which promoted philosophical questions about hidden variables to
the level of experimental verifiability (although it remained difficult to
conceive of specific experiments that could be undertaken in order to
demonstrate their VALIDITY). The inequalities in question derive from
attempts to account for spin CORRELATIONS between particles: if one is up,
the other must be down. The difference between such a theory and quantum
mechanics is that in the former, the spins are predetermined (by the hidden
variables) before any measurement, and hence, are objectively real.
Bergson, Henri—French philosopher. Dynamism characterizes his philosophy;
his dualist view posits a vital principle (élan vital) in contrast to inert matter;
(see DUALISM); he rejects mechanistic or materialistic approaches to
understanding reality and any deterministic view of the world, and claims
that the creative urge, not natural selection, is at the heart of evolution (see
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MECHANISM, MATERIALISM, DETERMINISM). He draws a distinction
between the CONCEPT and the experience of time; the former might be
subjected to the kind of analysis applied to the concept of space, but ‘real time’
is experienced as duration and apprehended by INTUITION. He championed
the latter against rationalistic ‘conceptual’ thought.
Berkeley, George—Irish philosopher, Bishop of Cloyne; known for his empiricist
and idealist METAPHYSICS and EPISTEMOLOGY. He rejected the idea that a
world independent of perceptions can be inferred from them (see
EMPIRICISM, IDEALISM, INFERENCE); mental PHENOMENA, the mind
and its contents (spirit and idea), are all that exists. These may be external to
us, in the universal mind of God, with the ideas it contains constituting the
natural world. His views may be construed as a form of PHENOMENALISM.
Bernard, Claude—French physiologist, who established physiology as an exact
science and laid the foundations of experimental method in that field.
Bernoulli, Jean—Swiss mathematician; an important figure in the development of
the CALCULUS.
Berzelius, Jöns Jacob—Swedish chemist, recognized for determining the
direction of CHEMISTRY for nearly a century. Educated in medicine, he
brought organic nature within the atomic concept, while maintaining a
vitalist position. See VITALISM.
Bohr, Niels—Highly influential Danish theoretical physicist. He formulated the
QUANTUM theory of the electronic structure of the hydrogen atom and of
the origin of the spectral lines (corresponding to the energy transition levels)
of hydrogen and helium. Bohr became the Director of the Institute for
Theoretical Physics in the University of Copenhagen, which rapidly became a
mecca for physicists from all over the world. A major development of his
philosophical views was put forth in a 1927 lecture when he introduced the
idea of COMPLEMENTARITY. He pointed out the impossibility of any sharp
separation between the behaviour of atomic objects and their interaction with
the measuring instruments which define the conditions under which the
phenomena appear. This tended to promote a more realistic interpretation of
unobservable conditions.
Bohr’s principles—See COMPLEMENTARITY, CORRESPONDENCE.
Bohr’s theory—A pioneering attempt to apply QUANTUM theory to the study of
atomic structure (1913). It postulates an electron moving in one of certain
discrete circular orbits about a nucleus with emission or absorption of
electromagnetic radiation, necessarily accompanied by transitions of the
electron between the allowed orbits (see ELECTROMAGNETISM). This
revised the classical electrodynamic model in which the electrons would
theoretically irradiate, lose energy and spiral into the nucleus. Although it
was soon shown to be false, Bohr’s theory was successfully extended far
enough over the next twelve years to suggest that many facts in physics and
CHEMISTRY might be explained in these terms, and even led to the modern
theory of QUANTUM MECHANICS. Thus, even though it has been
superseded, it revolutionized theoretical physics and is today of outstanding
historical and philosophical interest.
Boltzmann Ludwig—Vienna-born and educated physicist. He is celebrated for his
contribution to the kinetic theory of gases and to statistical mechanics, the
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latter of which he was the founder. His great talents as a theoretical physicist
focused primarily on the kinetic theory of gases, PROBABILITY THEORY and
ELECTROMAGNETISM. The beginning of his career in 1866 belonged to the
most creative and revolutionary period in physics since NEWTON, two
centuries earlier.
Boltzmann, constant—When the ENTROPY of a system, a gas for example, is
divided by the natural LOGARITHM of its statistical instability, the result is
the constant named after Boltzmann. It is symbolized by k.
Bolyai, Johann—Hungarian mathematician, who at the age of 22 wrote ‘Absolute
Science of Space’, a complete system of GEOMETRY. He showed that
EUCLID’S parallel postulate was not necessary. Although he was one of the
founders of non-Euclidean geometry, he had been preceded (unknown to
him) by GAUSS and LOBACHEVSKY.
Boole, George—English mathematician responsible for the development of the
idea of treating variables in LOGIC in ways analogous to those in ALGEBRA;
this was the first real step in the development of modern logic. He was one of
the first mathematicians to realize that SYMBOLS of operation could be
separated from those of quantity. He showed that classes or sets could be
operated on in the same way algebraic symbols or numerical quantities can
and applied ordinary algebra to the logic of classes.
Born, Max—German physicist who made fundamental contributions to
QUANTUM MECHANICS. He invented matrix mechanics and put forward
the statistical interpretation of wave function.
Boring, Edwin Garrigues—American psychologist, who won distinction for his
History of Experimental Psychology (1929), which traces the genesis of this
recent academic discipline from its origins in early nineteenth century
philosophy and physiology.
Boyle, Robert—English chemist and physicist. He gave clear qualitative
expression to the notion of heat as due to an increase in the motion of the
particles of a gas. He is also known for advancing an atomistic theory
according to which the ultimate constituents of matter were made up certain
primitive, simple and perfectly unmingled bodies, which by combining
together gave all the natural variety of matter.
Bradley, F(rancis) H(erbert)—English idealist philosopher, known for his works
on LOGIC, METAPHYSICS and ETHICS. Outside the British empiricist
tradition, his work is more in the continental Hegelian spirit. His central
metaphysical notion is ‘the ABSOLUTE’—a coherent and comprehensive
whole that harmonizes the diversity and self-contradictions of appearances.
Brouwer, Luitzen Egbertus Jan—Dutch mathematician, the founder of
mathematical INTUITIONISM, who did important work in the philosophy of
MATHEMATICS.
Bruno, Giordano—Italian philosopher and supporter of the Copernican
(heliocentric) system. He was arrested by the inquisition and burned at the
stake for his radical scientific and religious views.
Büchner, Ludwing—German philosopher, who through his book Power and
Matter, made MATERIALISM a popular doctrine in central Europe. He
opposed DUALISM, claiming that the soul is merely a function of the brain.
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Cabanis, Pierre Jean Georges—French physician and philosopher, who
pioneered physiological psychology.
calculus—An abstract system of SYMBOLS, with definitions, AXIOMS and rules
of INFERENCE, aimed at calculating something. A calculus is interpreted
when its symbols are given meaning by relating them to things in the real
world, and some philosophers think of the various sciences as interpreted
calculi. Questions of completeness, consistency, decidability and criteria for
decisions are among the theoretical considerations of this subject. There are
many different kinds of calculus and each symbol system of symbolic LOGIC
may be called a calculus: sentential or propositional, quantifier or predicate
calculus, as well as the calculus of identity, of classes and of relations.
Infinitesimal calculus, an invention of NEWTON and LEIBNIZ in the second
half of the seventeenth century, is one of the greatest achievements in the
history of mathematics. It is based on the concepts of limits, convergence and
infinitesimals (variables which approach zero as a limit). See
PROPOSITIONAL/ PREDICATE CALCULUS.
Carnap, Rudolf—German-born philosopher who taught at the universities of
Vienna, Prague and Chicago. He transplanted logical POSITIVISM when the
VIENNA CIRCLE disbanded in pre-World War II Austria. He is important for
his work on formal LOGIC, philosophy of SCIENCE and their applications to
the problems of epistemology, and helped to develop a new science of logical
SYNTAX and SEMANTICS. He espoused the doctrine of PHYSICALISM and
sought to construct one common unified language for all branches of
empirical science so that problems of language would no longer be an
impediment to knowledge.
Cartesian doubt—A philosophical method associated with DESCARTES in which
one begins by assuming that any belief which could be doubted is falseeven
the most ordinary assumptions of common sense. One then searches for a
starting point that is indubitable.
Cartesian plane—A two-dimensional flat plane, the points of which are specified
by their position relative to orthogonal axes. It is named after DESCARTES,
who established the plane and its coordinates as a basis for analytic geometry.
causality—The principle that every effect is a consequence of an antecedent
CAUSE or causes. For causality to be true it is not necessary for an effect to be
predictable since uncertainty about it may be attributed to the fact that the
antecedent causes may be too numerous, too complicated or too interrelated
for analysis. In QUANTUM theory, the classical CERTAINTY of causality is
replaced at the sub-atomic level by probabilities that specific particles exist in
specific positions and take part in specific events. This involves the
uncertainty principle which states that the position and MOMENTUM of an
electron cannot be established precisely and it is only following consecutive
observations of what may be two particles, that probabilities may be
determined. See PROBABILITY.
cause—From the Latin causa. A term correlative to the term ‘effect’. That which
occasions, determines, produces or conditions an effect; or is the necessary
antecedent of an effect. Long-standing philosophical problems are concerned
with the nature of cause, and how we go about establishing it. HUME argued
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that we think that A causes B when A’s have regularly been followed by B’s in
the past (i.e. have been ‘constantly conjoined’ with B’s); but the notion that A
has a ‘power’ to produce B ‘necessarily’, is not something we can observe,
such that this is not a legitimate part of the notion of cause. It is argued that
this fails to distinguish between causal connections and mere accidental
(contingent), but universal regularities.
certainty—From the Latin certus, ‘sure’. The alleged indubitability of certain
truths, especially of LOGIC and mathematics. The concept of certainty plays
an important role in the philosophy of DESCARTES, where it applies to a
belief or proof which is beyond rational doubt, as in the case of the COGITO.
ceteris paribus—Latin, ‘other things being equal’. This expression is used in
comparing two things, assuming they differ only in the one characteristic
under consideration. For example, it could be said that, ‘ceteris paribus, a
simple theory is better than a complicated one’; though if everything else is
not equal—if, for example, the simpler theory has fewer true predictions—
then it might not be better.
(The Great) Chain of Being—A metaphor for the order, unity, and completeness
of the created world, thought of as a chain extending from God to the tiniest
particle of inanimate matter. The idea has a long history, originating with
PLATO’S Timaeus and forming the basic medieval and Renaissance image for
a hierarchical arrangement of the universe. It is also the title of a book written
by Arthur Lovejoy (1873–1962) in 1936, which traces, from Plato onwards, the
‘principle of plenitude’—the notion that all real possibilities are realized in
this world.
chance—This is an uncalculated and possibly incalculable element of existence
concerned with its contingent as opposed to necessary aspects. For example,
something happens by chance when it is not fully determined by previous
events—when previous events do not necessarily bring it about, or make it
the way it is; in other words, when it is a random event. Sometimes, however,
we speak of chance events as those we are unable to predict with certainty,
though they might be determined in unknown ways. We can sometimes
know the PROBABILITY of chance events in advance. See NECESSARY/
CONTINGENT TRUTH, RANDOMNESS.
channel—In communications, a specified band of frequencies, or a particular
path, used in the transmission and reception of electric signals. See
COMMUNICATION THEORY.
charge—A property of some elementary particles that causes them to exert forces
on one another, in terms of positive and negative (the natural unit of negative
charge is that possessed by the electron and the proton has an equal amount
of positive charge). Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
The force is thought to result from the exchange of PHOTONS between the
charged particles. The charge of a body or region arises as a result of an excess
or defect of electrons with respect to protons.
chemistry—The scientific discipline concerned with the investigation of many
thousands of substances which exist in nature or can be made artificially
(synthetic chemistry). Traditionally, it is subdivided into various branches
with specific concerns: physical (dealing with the physical laws governing
chemical behaviour); organic/inorganic (the study of substances containing/
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not containing carbon); nuclear or theoretical (applications of statistical and
QUANTUM MECHANICS); analytic (the detection and estimation of
chemical species) and micro-chemistry, a breed of the former (where minute
amounts are involved).
circular definition/reasoning—A definition is circular (and thus, useless) when
the term to be defined, or a version of it, occurs in the definition; for example,
the definition of ‘free action’ as ‘action that is freely done’. Circular reasoning
defends some statement by assuming the truth of that statement. It is also
known as ‘begging the question’.
Clarke, Samuel—English philosopher who championed a Newtonian philosophy
in opposition to the prevailing CARTESIAN climate of thought in the
Cambridge of his day. In a famous correspondence with LEIBNIZ, he
maintained that space and time were INFINITE homogenous entities, as
against Leibniz’s claim that they were ultimately relational.
Clausius, Rudolf Julius Emmanuel—German theoretical physicist. He ratified
Carnot’s theory of THERMODYNAMICS which was shown to be
inconsistent with the rapidly developing mechanical theory of heat.
Preceding Thomson’s equivalent formulation, he held that Carnot’s theorem
could be maintained provided that heat could not by itself pass from one
body to another at a higher temperature. As a result, he developed a precise
mathematical expression of the second law of thermodynamics in 1854, and
later coined the term ENTROPY to express the law of dissipation of energy in
terms of its tendency to increase. In 1858, he introduced the important
concepts of mean free path and effective radius of a molecule which was later
taken over by MAXWELL. Clausius was able to show that these concepts
accounted in principle for the observed small values of diffusion rates and
heat conductivities in gases in spite of the very large mean speeds of the gas
molecules. This theory based on the laws of dynamics and PROBABILITY
theory, provided a significant contribution to the kinetic theory of gases. He
was one of the most original physicists of the nineteenth century.
Cogito—Latin, ‘I think’. An argument of the type employed by DESCARTES
(Meditation IF) to establish the existence of the self. His Cogito, ergo sum (‘I
think, therefore I exist’) is an attempt to posit the existence of the self in any
act of thinking, including even the act of doubting. It is not so much
INFERENCE as a direct appeal to INTUITION, but it has commonly been
construed as an argument, because of Descartes’ formulation.
cognition—From the Latin cognitio, ‘knowledge’ or ‘recognition’. The term refers
both to the act or process of knowing and the knowledge itself. Competing
theories of knowledge are the subject matter of EPISTEMOLOGY.
cognitivism—Any theory that deals with COGNITION scientifically. Also known
as cognitive science, it is an umbrella term for a cluster of disciplines
including cognitive psychology, EPISTEMOLOGY, linguistics, computer
sciences, ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, mathematics and
NEUROPSYCHOLOGY. As a new approach to psychological problems,
usually making use of experimental data, cognitivism attempts to create
theories adequate to explain cognitive processes. In that it uses mental
concepts, it constitutes a break from BEHAVIOURISM which has come to be
viewed as incomplete in the study of cognition.
communication theory—See INFORMATION THEORY.
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complementarity—The principle which states that a system, such as an electron,
can be described either in terms of particles or in terms of wave motion.
According to BOHR these views are complementary. An experiment that
demonstrates the particle-like nature of electrons will not also show their
wave-like nature, and vice versa.
computation, theory of—See COMPUTATIONALISM.
computationalism—In psychology, this refers to the use of computers as models
of human functioning, and to the extended notion that human COGNITION
is a computational process of the sort typified by a standard digital computer.
See CONNECTIONIST/COMPUTATIONAL PARADIGM.
computer modelling—A method of transferring a relationship or process from its
actual situation to a computer. Computer models are selective
approximations of a real situation which, because of their simplification,
allow those aspects of the real world which are under examination to appear
in a generalized form.
Comte, Auguste—French philosopher, the founder of positivistic philosophy. He
began his first series of public lectures on POSITIVISM in 1826, the first
volume of which appeared in 1830. He traced the development of human
thought from its theological and metaphysical stages to its last positive stage:
the systematic collection and CORRELATION of observed facts and
abandonment of unverifiable speculation about first CAUSES and final ends.
He is credited with having coined the terms altruism and sociology.
concept/conceptualism—While some philosophers conceive of a concept as a
mental entity, it is generally regarded as the meaning of a word or phrase, as
in the ‘concept of man’. Conceptualism is a theory about the nature of
UNIVERSALS as mental representations. For instance, a universal term such
as animal, is not merely a word which applies to a number of particular
animals, nor a special kind of entity, a ‘universal’ which exists outside the
mind. It does indeed stand for an entity, but an ideational one which exists
only in the way that concepts exist.
confirmation theory—This is closely associated with VERIFICATION theory,
although it is concerned with the truth of scientific hypotheses, rather than
statements. Many philosophical doctrines (e.g., scientific EMPIRICISM) hold
that a certain hypothesis is said to be confirmed to a certain degree by a
certain amount of evidence. It depends upon inductive reasoning: the fact that
every known A is B confirms the hypothesis that every A whatever is B, but
does not establish it conclusively, since it is possible that some as yet
undiscovered A is not B, and thus that the unrestricted generalization is false.
Evidence in this case merely confers PROBABILITY and the degree of
confirmation is thus dependent upon the bulk and variety of the evidence.
CARNAP has made elaborate attempts to develop comprehensive formal
theories of confirmation on the basis of such principles. See HYPOTHESIS,
INDUCTION.
connectionist/computational paradigm—‘Connectionism’ is Edward
Thorndike’s term for the analysis of psychological phenomena in terms of
association between, not ideas, but situations and responses. Working within
a PARADIGM of this sort, recent connectionist theory portrays cognitive
activity as information exchanges within a network of interconnected nodes,
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studied in terms of the FEEDBACK characteristics of such systems. It may
provide an alternative to the DETERMINISM of the computational paradigm
which bases its study of human cognitive activity on the basis of a digital
computation without environmental interaction.
conservation, laws of—These laws deal with the conservation of mass and energy
and relate to the principle that in any system the sum of the mass and the
energy remains constant. It follows from the special theory of RELATIVITY
and is a general statement of two classical laws. The principle of conservation
of energy states that the total energy in any system is constant, while the
principle of the conservation of mass states that the total mass of any system
remains constant. According to the general principle of conservation it is held
that mass and energy are interconvertible according to the equation E= MC2,
EINSTEIN’S law.
constructivism—The view that mathematical entities exist only if they can be
constructed (or, intuitively, shown to exist), and that mathematical statements
are true only if a constructive proof can be given. It is thus opposed to any
view that sees mathematical objects and truths existing or being true
independently of (our) apprehension (i.e. PLATONISM). Constructivism
encompasses INTUITIONISM, FINITISM and FORMALISM.
contingent truth See NECESSARY/CONTINGENT TRUTH.
continuity in nature, laws of—That by which variable quantities passing from
one magnitude to another, pass through all the intermediate magnitudes
without passing over any of them abruptly. Many philosophers have asserted
the probable conformity of natural operations to this composite law, but
Boskovich went so far as to prove it a universal law. Thus, the distances or
velocities of two bodies can never be changed without their passing through
all the intermediate distances or velocities. The movement of the planets are
said to abide by these laws, as well as magnetism, electricity, the passage of
time, and strictly speaking, all things in nature.
control engineering—The field of engineering concerned with the establishment
of objectives for the manipulation of a system’s resources in a rapidly
changing environment so that command objectives, in the interests of
maintaining the system, may be implemented.
conventionalism—Any doctrine according to which A PRIORI truth, or the truth
of PROPOSITIONS (or of sentences) demonstrable by purely logical means, is
a matter of linguistic or postulational convention (and thus not ABSOLUTE in
character). It entails the view, first expressed by POINCARÉ and developed
by MACH and DUHEM, that scientific laws are disguised conventions
reflecting the decision to adopt one of various possible descriptions.
Copernicus, Nicolas—Polish astronomer. Architect of the heliocentric theory of
the solar system, Copernicus found it necessary to retain seventeen of
PTOLEMY’S epicycles, while supposing that planetary orbits were circular.
The later work of Tycho Brahe and KEPLER dropped these entirely and
transformed the orbits into ellipses.
correlation—In STATISTICS, this is a relationship between two or more variables
such that systematic increases in the magnitude of one variable are
accompanied by systematic increases or decreases in the magnitude of the
other. More loosely, it refers to any relationship between things such that
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some concomitant or dependent changes in one (or more) occur with changes
in the other(s). Note that in both of these usages one properly withholds the
presumption of CAUSALITY between the variables. Correlations are
statements about concomitance; they may suggest but do not necessarily
imply that the changes in one variable are producing or causing the changes
in the other(s).
correlation coefficient—A number that expresses the degree and direction of
relationship between two (or occasionally, more) variables. The correlation
coefficient may range from -1.00 (indicating a perfect negative correlation) to
+1.00 (indicating a perfect positive correlation). The higher the value either
negative or positive the greater the concomitance between the variables. A
value of 0.00 indicates no correlation; changes in one variable are statistically
independent of changes in the other. A large number of statistical procedures
exists for determining the correlation coefficient between variables,
depending on the nature of the data and their methods of collection. See
STATISTICS
correspondence—The principle due to BOHR which states that since the classical
laws of physics are capable of describing the properties of macroscopic
systems, the principles of QUANTUM MECHANICS, which are applicable to
microscopic systems, must give the same results when applied to large
systems.
co-variance/co-variation—Co-variation is a literal synonym for co-variance which
refers to changes in one variable being accompanied by changes in another.
covering law—A general law applying to a particular instance. The covering law
theory of explanation states that a particular event is explained when one or
more covering laws are given that (together with particular facts) imply the
event. For example, we can explain why a piece of metal rusted by appealing
to the covering law that iron rusts when exposed to air and moisture, and the
facts that this metal is iron, and was exposed to air and moisture. See
‘DEDUCTIVE-NOMOLOGICAL MODEL’.
cybernetics—From the Greek kubern%t%s, meaning ‘steersman’. The science of
systems of control and communication in animals and machines in terms of
FEEDBACK mechanisms. The term was coined by WIENER to designate this
field of study, which was a burgeoning interdisciplinary movement led by
him in the 1940s. It initially involved mathematics, neurophysiology and
CONTROL ENGINEERING, but expanded to include MATHEMATICAL
LOGIC, AUTOMATION THEORY, psychology and socioeconomics.
Darwin, Charles—The great English naturalist who gave shape to his
evolutionary HYPOTHESIS in The Origin of Species (1859). He was not the first
to advance the idea of the kinship of all life but is memorable as the expositor
of a provocative and simple explanation in his theory of natural selection. He
served to establish the fact of evolution firmly in all scientific minds.
Dedekind, Julius William Richard—German mathematician. His major
contribution is the ‘Dedekind Cut’, which allows irrational NUMBERS to be
defined in terms of rational numbers, marking the place and filling in the
gaps between the set of rational numbers as points on a straight line. It
implies that the number series is compact and continuous.
deduction/induction—From the Latin de, ‘from’, and in ‘in’, combined with ducere
‘to lead’. In an outdated way of speaking, deduction is reasoning from the
general to the particular and induction is reasoning from the particular to the
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general. In a more contemporary way, the distinction between them is made
as follows: correct deductive reasoning is such that if the premisses are true,
the conclusion must be true; whereas correct inductive reasoning supports
the conclusion by showing only that it is more probably true. A common form
of induction works by enumeration: as support for the conclusion that all p’s
are q’s, one lists many examples of p’s that are q’s. It also involves ‘ampliative
argument’ in which the premisses, while not entailing the truth of the
conclusion, nevertheless purports good reason for accepting it.
deductive-nomological model—This mode of explanation takes the form of the
logical derivation of a statement depicting the phenomenon to be explained
(explanandum) from a set of statements specifying the conditions under
which the phenomenon is encountered and the laws of nature applicable to it
(explanans). It is also known as the ‘COVERING LAW’ method of
explanation.
De Morgan, Augustus—English mathematician and logician; a noted teacher and
founder of the London Mathematical Society. He wrote on PROBABILITY,
trigonometry and PARADOXES. De Morgan’s rule is used in SET THEORY.
denotation/connotation—The denotation or reference of a word is what that word
refers to—the things in the world that it ‘names’. By contrast, the connotation
or sense of a word is its meaning. Thus, a word can have connotation but no
denotation: ‘unicorn’ has meaning but no reference. The distinction is
synonomous with EXTENSION/INTENSION. See also SENSE AND
REFERENCE.
Descartes, René—French philosopher and mathematician, the founder of modern
philosophy. Earlier scholasticism saw the job of philosophy as analysing and
proving truths revealed by religion; Descartes’ revolutionary view was that
philosophy can discover truth. His famous recipe for doing this is the method
of systematic doubt; this is necessary to begin the search for the ‘indubitable’
foundations for knowledge, the first of which is the truth of his own existence
as a thinking (not a material) thing. Although he was a champion of
mechanistic thinking about the external and material world, and in fact
contributed substantially to the new science and mathematics, he was a
DUALIST, and believed that minds are non-material. See MECHANISM.
descriptions, theory of—RUSSELL’S attempt to show how a definite description
can have meaning even when there is nothing that answers to that
description. How, for example, can one say meaningfully ‘The present King of
France is bald’? A non-Russellian analysis of the sentence would attempt to
isolate a non-existent individual and predicate baldness of him, giving rise to
a descriptive FALLACY. It renders the sentence meaningless because, having
failed to perform an act of reference, the sentence could not be said to be either
true or false. Russell’s strategy is to move the definite description out of the
position which it occupies, i.e., that of the subject of the PROPOSITION. So,
for ‘the present King of France is bald’, Russell would substitute, ‘There is at
least one individual which is at present a King of France, and there is at most
one individual which is at present a King of France, and that individual is
bald’.
determinism—From the Latin determinare, ‘to set bounds or limits’. The view that
every event has previous CAUSES, such that given its causes, each event must
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have existed in the form it does. There is some debate about how (and
whether) this view can be justified. The view that at least some events are not
fully caused is called ‘indeterminism’. Determinism is usually a
PRESUPPOSITION of science; KANT thought it was necessary; but quantum
physics holds that it is false. One of the main areas of concern about
determinism arises when it is considered in connection with or in contrast to
free will.
dualism/monism—These terms characterize views on the basic kind(s) of things
that exist. Dualists hold that there are two sorts of things, neither of which can
be understood in terms of the other. In particular, ‘dualism’ often refers to the
view in the philosophy of mind in which the two distinct elements are the
mental and the physical. By contrast, monists believe in only one ultimate
kind of thing. While the term dualism was initially introduced in 1700 by
Thomas Hyde to characterize the good-evil conflict, the term monism was
introduced by Christiann Wolff in a discussion of the MIND/ BODY
PROBLEM.
Duhem, Pierre Maurice Marie—French theoretical physicist.
Du Bois Reymond, Emil—German physiologist, pioneer of the study of the
electric phenomena of living tissues.
Durkheim, Emile—French positivistic sociologist. Influencing French sociology
in an EMPIRICAL direction, he stressed the importance of the group as the
origin of the norms and goals of individuals, and the source and reference of
religious symbols. The function of religion in his view is the creation and
maintenance of social solidarity. See POSITIVISM.
Eddington, Sir Arthur Stanley—English astronomer and physicist. He is
celebrated for his pioneering work on stellar structure (1926) and for his
attempts to unify general RELATIVITY and QUANTUM MECHANICS, with
a marked ability to convey complex mathematical ideas to the layperson.
effector—Generally, a muscle or gland at the terminal end of an efferent neural
process which produces an observed response or effect.
efferent/afferent nervous system—Efferent is from the Latin, meaning ‘carry
away from’. Hence, in neurophysiology it refers to the conduction of nerve
impulses from the central nervous system outward toward the periphery
(muscles, glands). Efferent neurons and neural pathways carry information to
EFFECTORS and are called motor neurons or pathways. The afferent nervous
system, by contrast, refers to the conduction of nerve impulses from the
periphery (the sense organs) the central nervous system.
Einstein, Albert—German-born theoretical physicist whose major contribution
was the theory of RELATIVITY. He was educated in Zurich and in 1901 he
completed his studies, became a Swiss citizen, and made his first contribution
to physics. This was followed in 1905 by three important papers: one was on
Brownian movement and provided the most direct evidence for the existence
of molecules; another dealt with the spectrum of radiation and provided the
basis of QUANTUM MECHANICS; and one presented the special theory of
relativity. The fundamental paper on general relativity came in 1915, and was
followed by a Nobel prize for his work on quantum theory in 1922. He taught
in Zurich, Prague and Berlin, but in 1932 found himself in the United States
where he spent the rest of his life, eventually becoming a citizen and holding
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a position at the Princeton Institute of Advanced Study. See QUANTUM
FIELD THEORY.
electromagnetism—One of the four fundamental FORCES of nature characterized
by the FIELDS produced by the elementary charged particles, i.e. protons and
electrons. More generally, it is also one of the main branches of physics,
linking the phenomena of electrostatics, electric currents, magnetism and
optics into a single conceptual framework. The final form of the theory was
devised by MAXWELL and is one of the triumph of the nineteenth century
science. See CHARGE.
elementary number theory—A branch of pure mathematics concerned generally
with the properties and relationships of integers.
elementary proposition—In WITTGENSTEIN’S philosophy these are possible
concatenations of simple elements which feature ‘states of affairs’. They are
composed of strings of names which are ISOMORPHIC to the concatenations
of the objects they represent. An elementary PROPOSITION is true, if the
objects it mentions are concatenated the way it pictures them, otherwise it is
false and the state of affairs does not obtain. The SYNTAX of elementary
propositions thus mirrors the geometry of states of affairs.
emotivism—A position in meta-ETHICS that holds that ethical utterances are to
be understood not as statements of fact that are either true or false, but rather
as expressions of approval or disapproval and invitations to the listener to
have the same reactions. HUME might be construed as holding a form of
emotivism; in this century, the position is associated with AYER and the
American philosopher STEVENSON.
empirical—Relating to sense experience and experiment; having reference to
actual facts. In EPISTEMOLOGY, empirical knowledge is not innate, but is
knowledge we get through experience of the world; thus it is A POSTERIORI.
In scientific method, it is that part of the method of science in which the
reference to actuality allows an HYPOTHESIS to be erected into a law or
general principle. It is contrasted with NORMATIVE which means regulative
or constituting an ideal standard.
empiricism—From the Greek empeiria, which is from empeiros, meaning
‘experienced in’, ‘acquainted with’, ‘skilled at’. The doctrine that the source of
all knowledge is to be found in experience. One of the major theories of the
origin of knowledge, empiricism is usually contrasted with rationalism, the
doctrine that reason is the sole, or at least the primary, source of knowledge.
Although this term is associated with the denial of innate CONCEPTS and a
SYNTHETIC A PRIORI, in general it refers to stressing the role of experience
instead of pure reason in the acquisition of knowledge.
entropy/negentropy—Entropy is the measure of the proportion of total energy
within a closed system that is available for useful work. If part of the system is
hotter than another part then work can be done as the heat energy passes
from the hotter to the colder part; but if the temperature is relatively
consistent throughout, the system is incapable of accomplishing work. This
property follows from the second law of THERMODYNAMICS in that, as a
result of irreversible changes to a system in which it expends energy, its
capacity to produce additional work decreases and its entropy thereby
increases. The absolute value of the entropy of a system—which remains an
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arbitrary zero with only changes in its value being significant—is a measure
of the unavailability of its energy.
Negentropy is also known as negative entropy and thus refers to the
absence of entropy. While entropy is a measure of a relative lack of
information, negentropy corresponds to its presence. In the form of structure,
it means the departure from the random arrangement of a system’s
components, to an orderly situation in which is it capable of productive work.
See RANDOMNESS.
epiphenomenalism—Theory of the body-mind relation which holds that
consciousness is, in relation to the neural processes which underlie it, a mere
epiphenomenon, or ‘by-product’. This view was advanced by Clifford,
HUXLEY and Hodgson.
epistemology—From the Greek episteme, ‘knowledge’ or ‘science’, and logos,
‘knowledge’. This term designates the theory which investigates the origin,
structure, methods and VALIDITY of knowledge. It is one of the main
branches of philosophy. Among the central questions studied here are: What
is the difference between knowledge and mere belief? Is all (or any)
knowledge based on sense perception? How, in general, are our knowledge
claims justified?
EPR experiment—The 1935 work of EINSTEIN, Podolsky and Rosen (EPR) which
concluded that QUANTUM theory did not constitute a ‘complete’ theory, the
necessary condition of which, according to EPR, being that ‘every element of
the physical reality must have a counterpart in the physical theory’. The
concept of reality was defined with the claim that if we can predict the value
of a physical quantity with certainty (i.e., with PROBABILITY equal to unity)
and without in any way disturbing a system, then there exists an element of
physical reality corresponding to this physical quantity. The EPR experiment
can be criticized on the ground that ‘the system’ must be understood in its
totality and cannot refer to just one of the particles of a two-particle system. A
measurement of one of them does indeed disturb the system and alters the
quantum mechanical description. Thus, motivated by the EPR argument one
may ask whether it is possible to formulate a theory in which physical
quantities do have OBJECTIVELY real values ‘out there’, independently of
whether any measurements are made.
equivocation—From the Latin aequia-vox meaning ‘same name’. Any FALLACY
arising from the ambiguity of a word, or of a phrase playing the role of a
single word in the reasoning in question, the word or phrase being used at
different places with different meanings. The INFERENCE drawn is formally
correct if the word or phrase is treated as being the same word or phrase
throughout.
esoteric/exoteric—From the Greek esotero, ‘inner’/‘interior’, and exoterikos,
‘outside’. The first implies belonging to the inner circle of initiates, or experts,
an exclusive system (i.e., the esoteric doctrines of the Stoics, or the esoteric
members of Pythagorean brotherhoods). It is contrasted with exoteric, which
connotes that a doctrine or system is open to the public.
essence/essentialism—Essentialism may apply to PLATO’S philosophy of the Forms,
but more generally, it is the metaphysical view dating back to ARISTOTLE,
maintaining that some objects—no matter how described—have essences;
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that is they have, essentially or necessarily, certain properties, without which
they could not exist or be the things they are. There is also a related view,
originally presented by Locke, that objects must have a ‘real’—though as
yet unknown—‘essence’, which (causally) explains their more readily
observable properties (or ‘nominal essence’). Recently, essentialist
considerations have been applied to problems raised in LOGIC and to issues
in the philosophies of science and of language. See also METAPHYSICS,
CAUSE.
ethics—From the Greek éthikos, which is from ethos, meaning, ‘custom’ or ‘usage’.
As employed by ARISTOTLE, the term included both the idea of ‘character’
and that of ‘disposition’. Moralis, a term which was considered equivalent to
éthikos, was introduced by Cicero. Both terms imply connection with practical
activity. It is widely understood that ethical behaviour concerns acting in
terms of the good and the right, and the philosophical analysis known as
ethics tended to centre on these terms.
ethnomethodology—A term originally coined by GARFINKEL to describe the
study of the ‘resources’ available to participants in social interactions and
how these are utilized by them, focusing on the practical reasoning processes
that ordinary people use in order to understand and act within the social
world. The term is generally used to apply to a body of sociological and
psychological research on conversational rules, negotiation of property rights
and other socially motivated interactions.
Euclid of Alexandria (3rd century BC).—Greek mathematician, founder of
Euclidean geometry and probable founder of the Alexandrian School of
geometry. For over 2,000 years his work in geometry held unlimited
VALIDITY. Even with the development of non-Euclidean systems of
geometry, Euclid’s work retains great mathematical importance. In modern
mathematics, Euclidean space can have any number of dimensions where the
distance between two points is interpreted in the same way as that in two or
three dimensions. See ‘GEOMETRY, EUCLIDEAN’.
explanandum/explanans—See DEDUCTIVE-NOMOLOGICAL MODEL.
extension—From the Latin ex, ‘out’, and tendere, ‘to stretch’. The extension of
something is its dimensions in space. Having extension is characteristic of
things composed of extended SUBSTANCE. Mental substance is unextended
since it has no spatial dimensions.
extension/intension—In contemporary LOGIC, ‘extension’ is sometimes used
synonymously with ‘DENOTATION’, and ‘intension’ with ‘connotation’. The
extension of a CONCEPT—a term or a predicate—is the set of things to which
that concept applies, while its intension is its meaning in the sentence. An
extensional context is a referentially transparent context. This occurs in a
sentence where the substitution of an expression does not affect the truth
value of the sentence: (1) a singular term a, where b for a have the same
denotation; (2) a predicate F where G for F have the same extension; (3) a
sentence p, where q for p have the same truth value. Contexts which are not
extensional, due to the substituted concept’s different meaning in the context,
are intensional and opaque. For an example, see OPACITY AND
TRANSPARENCY, REFERENTIAL.
fallacy—From the Latin fallacia, ‘deceit’, ‘trick’ or ‘fraud’. Any unsound step or
process of reasoning, especially one which has a deceptive appearance of
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soundness or is falsely accepted as sound. The unsoundness may consist
either in a mistake of formal LOGIC, or in the suppression of a premiss whose
unacceptability might have been recognized if it had been stated, or in a lack
of genuine adaptation of the reasoning to its purpose. There are many
recognized kinds of fallacies. For examples, see AD HOC, DESCRIPTIONS,
THEORY OF, EQUIVOCATION, MODAL LOGIC, POST HOC.
fallibilism—A doctrine of the pragmatist Charles Pierce that ABSOLUTE
CERTAINTY, exactitude, or universality is available in no area of human
concern or enquiry, but that movement towards these characteristics is
available in every case.
family resemblance—By analogy with the ways members of a family resemble
each other, this is the sort of similarity that things classified into certain
groups share: each shares characteristics with many but not all of the others,
and there are no necessary or sufficient conditions for belonging in that
classification. WITTGENSTEIN argued that many of our CONCEPTS are
family-resemblance concepts, such that they cannot be defined by necessary
and sufficient conditions. His best-known example is the concept of a game.
Faraday, Michael—English physicist, the main architect of classical field theory.
His work was rejected by his contemporaries and was only later made
respectable by MAXWELL. See FIELD.
feedback, positive/negative—While all operating systems function through input
and output couplings, feedback is the process of returning a fraction of the
output energy or information to the input by producing a corresponding
variation between them. Positive feedback occurs when deviation from a
stable state produces outputs that lead to yet further deviation, i.e., when an
increase in population which produces a greater increase in subsequent
generations. With negative feedback, by contrast, the input energy is
decreased. It is like a regulatory restraint which tends toward stabilizing the
system, as in HOMEOSTASIS.
fideism—The view of Abbé Louis Bautain (the nineteenth-century French
Catholic philosopher) that faith precedes reason with respect to knowledge of
God, and that in this respect reason is metaphysically incompetent. The
doctrine was condemned in an 1855 decretal. See METAPHYSICS.
field—A region under the influence of some physical agency, such as the electric
field resulting from an electric CHARGE.
finite—See INFINITE/FINITE.
finitism—An approach to mathematics that admits to its domain only a FINITE
number of objects (numbers), each of which must be capable of construction
in a finite number of steps. Any general theorem that asserts something of all
members of the domain is acceptable only if it can be proven, in a finite
number of steps, to hold of each particular member of the domain. HILBERT
was the major proponent of finitistic methods in mathematics.
force—Any action that alters or tends to alter a body’s state of rest or velocity.
formal/truth/logic—In the traditional use, formal truth means valid
independently of the specific subject matter; having a merely logical meaning.
In the narrower sense of formal LOGIC which works by exhibiting, often in
symbolic notation, the logical form of sentences, it means independent of,
without reference to meaning. See VALIDITY, SYMBOLS.
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formalism—The tendency to emphasize form as over against content. In ETHICS,
the term is sometimes used as equivalent to INTUITIONISM, and is often
used to designate any ethical theory, such as KANT’S in which the basic
principles for determining our duty are purely formal. In mathematics,
formalism refers to a programme of deriving all of mathematics from the
smallest possible number of AXIOMS by rules of formation and rules of
INFERENCE.
formal/material mode of discourse—The distinction put forth by CARNAP to
eliminate the necessity of experience in evaluating the truth of statements. By
the formal mode he meant a discourse that confined itself to statements and
did not try to go beyond these in reference to things, as in the case of the object
sentences of the material mode.
Frege, Gottlob (1848–1925). German logician and philosopher of language, the
founder of modern MATHEMATICAL LOGIC. He is best known for
inventing QUANTIFICATION in logic, for his arguments that mathematics
should be understood as an extension of LOGIC, and for his investigations
into the relation between SENSE AND REFERENCE in the philosophy of
LANGUAGE.
function—Loosely speaking, a correspondence between one group of things and
another. The notion is used in arithmetic, where for example, y is said to be a
function of x in the formula y=x2. In its applications in LOGIC, the input value
(in place of x in this case) is called the ‘argument’ of the function, and the
output (the corresponding value of y) is called the ‘value’ of the function for
that argument. For instance, given the argument 3, the value is 9.
functionalism—In philosophy, this is an approach to the study of mind that views
mental states as functional states. Functionalism in this sense is distinguished
metaphysically from PHYSICALISM in that rather than arguing that two
identical mental states are physically identical, it argues that they should
(can) only be viewed as functionally equivalent. In psychology, this is a
general and broadly presented point of view that stresses the analysis of mind
and behaviour in terms of their functions or utilities rather than contents.
Galilei, Galileo (1564–1642). Italian astronomer and natural philosopher. Among
his scientific discoveries are the isochronism of the pendulum, the hydrostatic
balance, the principles of dynamics, the proportional compass and
thermometer, and although he did not invent it, he is famous for radically
improving the telescope. With the aid of this instrument, he described the
mountains of the moon, the Milky Way as a vast constellation of stars, the
satellites of Jupiter, the phases of Venus and the so-called solar spots. He is
also well-known for his innovative work on gravity and the interdependence
of motion and FORCE.
Garfmkel, Harold—American sociologist. He is the founder of
ETHNOMETHODOLOGY.
Gassendi, Pierre—French philosopher, scientist and mathematician. He argued
the impossibility of deriving scientific theory from sensory experience and
held an atomistic theory of the universe; but he is principally known for his
fifth set of objections to DESCARTES’ Meditations (1642).
Gauss, Karl Friedrich—German mathematician and astronomer, considered
one of the most original mathematicians who ever lived. He was famous
for his contributions to number theory, geometry and astronomy. He was
first to prove the fundamental theorem of ALGEBRA and was a pioneer in
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non-Euclidean GEOMETRY, STATISTICS and PROBABILITY, the theory of
FUNCTIONS and the geometry of curved spaces.
genus/species—For philosophers, not just biological hierarchical divisions, but
divisions of group and sub-group anywhere. A genus is a general
classification; a species subdivides the genus. This nomenclature is especially
associated with ARISTOTLE, who thought that a species ought to be defined,
by giving the essential characteristics of its genus, plus the differentia (Latin,
‘difference’) that distinguish that species from others in the genus.
geometry, Euclidean—The geometry based on the assumptions of EUCLID and
dealing with the study of plane geometry (two-dimensional) and space or
solid geometry (three-dimensional). His AXIOMS were developed in Elements
which was the pre-eminent textbook on the subject for over 2,000 years; it was
not until the nineteenth century that the possibility of a non-Euclidean
geometry was seriously considered. See GEOMETRY, NON-EUCLIDEAN.
geometry, non-Euclidean—Any geometry not based upon EUCLID’S
assumptions; in particular, the substitution of a postulate different from
‘Euclid’s parallel postulate’ which said that one and only one line can be
drawn through a point outside a line and parallel to the line. Until the
nineteenth century, this was accepted as a self-evident truth. The replacement
of the postulate (as in spherical and pseudo-spherical geometry) and the
development of new geometries led to a new look at the basic assumptions on
which mathematics is built. The founders of non-Euclidean geometry were
GAUSS, Riemann, BOLYAI and LOBACHEVSKI.
Gödel, Kurt—Czech-born American mathematical logician who proved a number
of fundamental mathematical results that bear his name; in the course of these
proofs he showed the unattainability of the aims of HILBERT’S
PROGRAMME and (on some interpretations) LOGICISM, and brought about
a complete reassessment of the foundations of mathematics. Gödel’s theorem
is the proof of the existence of formally undecidable PROPOSITIONS in any
FORMAL system of arithmetic. See MATHEMATICAL LOGIC.
Harré, Rom (Horace Romano)—New Zealand-born philosopher of SCIENCE and
social and BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES, who currently teaches at Oxford.
Hartley, David—British philosopher and physician. He developed an account of
mind based on sound-like vibrations which is highly important in the history
of psychology. He used this not only to explain transmission of messages in
the nervous system, but also association of ideas by a kind of resonance, as
when one vibrating string activates another by sympathy.
Heider, Fritz—Swiss-born social psychologist who also lived in Germany and the
United States, where he emigrated in 1930. His main work, The Psychology of
Interpersonal Relations (1958), was an influential and wide-ranging
phenomenal enquiry which sought to explicate how we discern meaning in
everyday events and contributed to the development of ATTRIBUTION
THEORY.
Helmholtz, Herman Ludwig Ferdinand von (1821–94).—German scientist, one of
the most versatile of the nineteenth century. He is celebrated for his
contributions to physiology and theoretical physics.
Hempel, Carl Gustav (1905-). German-born and -educated philosopher who also
studied mathematics and physics, and taught in the United States. He became
a representative of logical POSITIVISM with its EMPIRICISM and scientific
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framework and is known for his ‘COVERING LAW’ approach which allowed
for statistical explanations. These use probabilistic laws to show that the event
to be explained is made highly probable, rather than deductively
necessitated, by the explanatory premisses. See DEDUCTION,
PROBABILITY, STATISTICS.
Hempel’s paradox—The PARADOX, developed by Hempel, which deals with the
way in which an observation report confirms a generalization. Observing a
black raven ought to confirm the HYPOTHESIS that all ravens are black;
equally, observing a non-black raven ought to confirm the hypothesis that all
non-black things are non-ravens; yet the second hypothesis is logically
equivalent to the first, so observation of a white shoe ought to confirm that all
ravens are black. But intuitively, it does not. This is one of the difficulties
formal CONFIRMATION THEORY meets.
heuristic—From the Greek heuriskein, ‘to discover’. Serving to find out, helping to
show how the qualities and relations of objects are to be sought. In
METHODOLOGY, aiding in the discovery of truth. The heuristic method is
the analytic method.
hidden variable—An indeterminate factor of which we are currently ignorant, but
which once discovered, would in theory allow for an accurate CAUSAL
prediction of the phenomena in question. In QUANTUM MECHANICS, a
hidden variable view of matter implies the fundamental CAUSALITY of
invisible FORCES at the sub-atomic level.
Hilbert, David—German mathematician. A pioneer, along with PEANO, of the
science of axiomatics (see AXIOM). This is the attempt to establish a minimum
number of unidentified terms and basic definitions, and from these to deduce
rigorously the entire structure of mathematics. Recognizing the assumptions
at the basis of EUCLID’S geometry, he shifted its foundation from
INTUITION to LOGIC.
Hilbert space—A multidimensional space in which the proper (eigen)
FUNCTIONS of WAVE MECHANICS are represented by orthogonal unit
vectors.
Hilbert’s program—Proposed by Hilbert in 1920 in support of his FORMALISM
in the foundations of mathematics, this became a motivating problem of
metamathematics, showing by purely syntactic means that finitistic methods
could never lead to contradiction. This is equivalent to finding a decision
ALGORITHM for all of mathematics, and although it was shown unattainable
by GÖDEL’S proof in 1931, the project nonetheless led to the development of
proof theory and computability theory. See FINITISM, SYNTAX.
Homans, George C(aspar)—American sociologist and professor at Harvard,
whose interests range from sociological theory and applications of
anthropology to industrial relations.
homeostasis—A type of FEEDBACK by which deviation from stability is
counteracted by adjustment internal to the system itself. It refers to an
adaptive process which is evident among biological organisms in the
mechanisms regulating body temperature and chemical composition of
blood.
Hooke, Robert—English scientist. He is known as one of the most brilliant and
versatile scientists of the seventeenth century, surpassed only by NEWTON.
His contributions in optics and gravitation were dwarfed by the latter with
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whom he engaged in many controversies. His reputation as an inventer of
scientific instruments, however, remains unrivalled for that period.
Hume, David—British philosopher, born and educated in Edinburgh, one of the
greatest philosophers of all time. A thoroughgoing empiricist, he believed
that all our ideas were copies of sense impressions; he argued that many of
our notions (such as the continuing ‘self, and the necessary connection we
suppose exists between CAUSE and effect), since unsupported by perception,
are mistaken, and that A PRIORI knowledge must derive merely from logical
relations between ideas. He is famous also for sceptical conclusions regarding
moral ‘knowledge’: our ethical reactions, he argued, come merely from the
psychological tendency to feel sympathy with others. His scepticism and
empiricism were enormously influential in the tradition ANALYTIC
PHILOSOPHY.
Huxley, Thomas Henry—British scientist, who was the main supporter of
DARWIN, but also a distinguished scientist in his own right. A prolific writer,
he produced research papers and books on wide-ranging subjects, mainly
zoological and palaeontological, but also geological, anthropological and
botanical.
hypothesis/null hypothesis—A tentative suggestion that may be merely a guess
or a hunch, or may be based on some sort of reasoning; in any case it needs
further evidence to be rationally acceptable as true. Some philosophers think
that all scientific enquiry begins with hypotheses. A null hypothesis is one
which has been shown to be invalid.
iatrochemistry/iatrophysics—The study of chemical/physical phenomena in
order to obtain results of medical value. Iatrochemistry was practised in the
sixteenth century, and finds modern equivalents in chemotherapy or
pharmacology.
ideal/idealism—From the Greek idea, ‘vision’ or ‘contemplation’. Broadly, any
theoretical or practical view emphasizing mind (soul, spirit, life) or what is
characteristically of pre-eminent value to it. It is the alternative to
MATERIALISM, stressing the ‘ideal’—supra-or non-spatial, incorporeal,
NORMATIVE or valuational, and ideological—over the real—concrete,
sensuous, factual and mechanistic. Metaphysical idealism is the view that
only minds and their contents really or basically exist—a form of monism;
and epistemological idealism is the view that the only things we know (or
know directly) are our own ideas. ‘Idealism’ was first used philosophically by
LEIBNIZ at the start of the eighteenth century.
idealism—See IDEAL.
incomplete symbol—RUSSELL’S designation for expressions that disappear
upon analysis, giving rise to a logical fiction. For example, if a sentence such
as ‘There is a possibility it will rain’ is represented by ‘It is possible it will
rain’, the possibility is said to have been shown to be a logical fiction. His
theory of definite DESCRIPTIONS, he believed, showed such descriptions to
be incomplete symbols and enabled him to speak of the supposed reference of
a non-referring description as a logical fiction. He also aimed to show that
symbols for classes were incomplete and that classes were logical fictions.
individuation—Development or determination of a particular (individual) from
its corresponding universal form or general type. The principle of
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individuation refers to the CAUSE (such as matter, God or form) of
individuation.
in situ—Latin, meaning in its (original) place.
induction—See DEDUCTION/INDUCTION.
inductive-statistical model—A form of explanation holding that we can explain
some particular action or event by showing that a statement which predicts it
is supported with a high degree of inductive PROBABILITY by some set of
antecedent conditions.
inductivism—The view in philosophy of SCIENCE which privileges
INDUCTION as a valid method of establishing scientific proof. With the
growth of NATURAL SCIENCE philosophers became increasingly aware that
a deductive argument can only bring out what is already implicit in the
premisses, and hence, became inclined to insist that all new knowledge must
come from some form of induction, i.e., an empirically based method of
reasoning by which a general law or principle is inferred from observed
particular instances. BACON, who believed that the method was infallible if
the collection of experimental instances was exhaustive, was the prophet of
inductivism. In the twentieth century, analyses of induction have proliferated,
and largely due to the work of CARNAP with his concept of ‘degree of
CONFIRMATION’, have coalesced with PROBABILITY theory. See
DEDUCTION/INDUCTION, EMPIRICAL, INFERENCE.
inference—From the Latin in and ferre, ‘to carry or bring’. A logical relation that
holds between two statements when the second follows deductively from the
first. This relation is sometimes called implication, but inference refers to the
act of inferring, the mode of reasoning involved when moving from one
statement to another, which the first statement implies. See DEDUCTION/
INDUCTION.
infinite/finite—From the Latin in, ‘not’, and finis ‘boundary’, ‘limit’, ‘end’. Thus,
infinite means that without limit, boundary or end. Etymologically, the first
term is gained by negation of the latter term, although there are those who
would claim that the conception of the infinite is prior to the finite. The
infinite has been associated from the start with series of NUMBERS,
magnitudes, times and spaces, the endlessness of such series provides one,
and the basic, conception of infinity. Yet if one applies the predicates ‘finite’
and ‘infinite’ to being, the conception changes; if finite being is limited in
extent, properties, etc., infinite being would be unlimited, or perhaps
ABSOLUTE, in all of these respects.
infinity, axiom of—An AXIOM of SET THEORY that asserts, in one form or
another, that there exists a set with an INFINITE number of members, or that
the number of objects in the world is a natural number. The reduction of
mathematics to set theory requires the axiom of infinity, which RUSSELL
originally and erroneously believed was provable from other accepted
assumptions. The axiom is now known to be independent of the other axioms
of set theory.
information theory (Also known as communication theory)—In CONTROL
ENGINEERING, the study treating the problem of transmitting messages:
that is, of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message
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selected at another point. The meaning of the message is irrelevant to the
technical problem, and is to be distinguished from a semantical
understanding of communication. It is concerned with the ability to encode,
transmit, and decode an actual message selected from a set of possible
messages with which the communication system claims to deal. Success in
this depends on the quantity of information that has to be processed in a unit
of time, measured against CHANNEL capacity. Mathematical tools are
developed to enable such measurements to be made and compared. The
simplest example would be the selection of one out of two equally likely
possibilities (one bit, while one out of four requires two bits, etc.). In general,
the selective information content measures the statistical unexpectedness of
the event in question. The more improbable an event, the larger its selective
information content. This way of measuring was developed by SHANNON
who inaugurated the study in 1948.
This theory is strongly interdisciplinary and embraces communication
processes of all kinds—in human societies, nervous systems and machines.
Psychologists and physiologists now make extensive use of its general ideas
and it has become commonplace to regard the impulses that flow along nerve
fibres as ‘conveying information’ (although how these are represented in the
brain remains unknown). Nonetheless, information theory provides a
valuable conceptual bridge between physiology and psychology.
instantiation theory—In the philosophy of SCENCE, a sub-theory of
INDUCTIVISM which holds that a scientific theory is confirmed by instances
to it. In this sense, every example under consideration that does not contradict
a theory or law is an instance of it. However, the reliability of this theory is
problematic due to its reliance on INTUITION and the logical paradoxes it
gives rise to. See ‘HEMPEL’S PARADOX’.
instrumentalism—The view that one should understand scientific theory in terms
of experimental procedures and predictions, stressing means over ends. It
holds that theoretical entities do not really exist, and that statements about
them do not have truth value; they are actually only instruments, tools or
calculating devices to relate observations to predictions. Instrumentalism is
also the name of the position associated with PRAGMATISM, especially with
Dewey, that emphasizes the way our thinking arises through practical
experience and represents a way of coping with our environment.
inter alia—Latin, ‘amongst other things’.
introspection/introspectionism—From the Latin intro, ‘within’ and spectare, ‘to
look’. Observation directed on the self or its mental states and operations,
either through the direct scrutiny of conscious states and processes as they
take place, or the recovery of these upon a retrospective act. The term is the
modern equivalent of ‘reflection’ and ‘inner sense’ as employed by LOCKE
and KANT. In psychology, introspectionism is the standpoint which
advocates the introspective method.
intuition—From the Latin intueri, ‘to look at’. As in vision, intuition involves
knowledge by which the object (the self, a conscious state, the external world,
a universal, rational truth) is immediately apprehended. It can be
apprehended directly and completely, in what it is, or it can be apprehended
in its concreteness. In the former the intuitive knowledge is opposed to the
discursive, in the latter it is opposed to the abstract.
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intuitionism—Any theory that holds INTUITION as a valid source of knowledge,
as in the philosophies of DESCARTES, SPINOZA and LOCKE. ETHICAL
intuitionism is the position that ethical truths are intuited, while
mathematical intuitionism holds that any sort of mathematical entity exists
only if it is possible to give a constructive existence proof of it (by producing
an example of it or providing a method for producing one). See
CONSTRUCTIVISM.
invariance—Generally, characteristic of that which does not change. The term is
most often used with the qualifier relative since few things are truly invariant.
In the psychological study of perception and learning, those aspects of the
stimulus world that display higher degrees of invariance, relative to other
aspects, are learned most quickly and easily.
ipso facto—Latin, ‘by the fact itself’, by that very fact or act, thereby.
isomorphism—From the Greek iso ‘equal’ and morphé ‘form’. The relevance of this
term to philosophy derives from the discipline of mathematics, and is related
to the close association between mathematics and LOGIC. Any two groups of
entities can be said to be isomorphic when they have the same structure, that
is, when by a one-to-one correspondence the elements of one group can be
correlated with the elements of the other.
James, William—One of the most important and influential American
philosophers whose main contribution came through his Principles of
Psychology (1890). He espoused a doctrine of radical EMPIRICISM,
maintaining that experience consists of a plurality, or multiplicity, of reality
(real units). He not only doubted consciousness, like HUME, but denied it,
holding that reality was nothing but the stream of OBJECTIVE experiences.
See also, LANGE.
Kant, Immanuel—German philosopher, one of the most important figures in the
history of philosophy. His epistemological concern was with the ‘truths of
reason’ (for example that everything has a CAUSE). Kant thought that such
knowledge was A PRIORI and SYNTHETIC, and that it could be accounted
for by the way that any rational mind necessarily thinks. Similarly, he argued
that the basis of ETHICS is not EMPIRICAL or psychological. Ethical
knowledge can be derived merely from the a priori form any ethical assertion
must have: it must be universalizable—that is, rationally applicable to
everyone (the categorical imperative). Kant argued that this is equivalent to
saying that the basic ethical truth was that everyone must be thought of as an
end, never merely as a means. Kant’s ethical theory has become a major
consideration in contemporary ethics.
Kepler, Johannes—German mathematician and one of the founders of modern
astronomy. His three laws of planetary motion state: (1) the orbit of each
planet is an ellipse, with the centre of the sun at one focus; (2) the imaginary
line joining the centre of each planet with the centre of the sun moves over
equal areas of the ellipse in equal periods of time; (3) the time each planet
takes to complete its journey around the sun is proportional to the cube of its
mean distance from the sun.
Keynes, John Maynard—British economist; the most seminal economist of the
twentieth century.
Koyré school—A school of thought in the philosophy of SCIENCE led by the
Russian philosopher Alexandre Koyré. He held that the great discoveries of
the scientific revolution (from COPERNICUS TO NEWTON) were the
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achievements of truth-loving individuals working in isolation. This
‘internalist’ interpretation stressed theory over practice and developed in
contrast to the Marxist interpretation of modern science as the response to the
technological needs of an emerging capitalist economy.
Kronecker Leopold—German mathematician who developed algebraic number
theory. He was often in debate with WEIERSTRASS and Cantor which gave
rise to his system of AXIOMS to support a formalist viewpoint. See
ALGEBRA.
Kuhn, Thomas—American philosopher and historian of science. He holds that
scientific theories develop around basic PARADIGMS or models which are of
central importance in interpreting scientific theories (i.e., the model of atomic
theory in terms of a solar system). In his book The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions (1962), he described how the scientific community determines the
line between orthodoxy and heresy at any given time, such that change in the
orientation of science depends upon convulsions in that community.
La Mettrie, Julian Offray de—French philosopher and physician, known for the
MATERIALISM of his books, and mechanistic view of both animals and man.
Lange, Carl Georg—Danish psychologist and materialist philosopher. Working
independently of William JAMES, he developed an almost identical theory of
emotion, i.e., that emotion consists of the bodily changes evoked by the
perception of external circumstances. It is known as the James-Lange theory.
Laplace, Pierre Simon—French mathematician, remembered for his contributions
to mathematical physics and celestial mechanics.
language, philosophy, of—The branch of philosophy concerned with meaning,
truth and with the force of utterances. To be distinguished from ‘linguistic
philosophy’ which is wider in scope and entails the general belief that
philosophical questions may be approached by asking questions about the
use of words. In the first sense, the question as to the justifiability of this
approach is central (as with AUSTIN and WITTGENSTEIN), as is the use of
key terms as not only ‘meaning’ and ‘truth’, but ‘reference’ and ‘use’ as well.
It may also be a study of the nature and workings of language as a subject in
its own right, rather than as a means to the solution of further philosophical
problems.
language game—WITTGENSTEIN used this concept, in a broad sense, to refer to
language and its uses, including the way our language influences the way we
think and act. The emphasis here is on the similarity of a language to a game:
both are rule-governed systems of behaviour, and the rules vary over times
and contexts. Language games include the ‘picturing’ of facts, the primary
purpose of language, but extend beyond this to prayer and praise, cursing,
requesting, and ceremonial greeting. There is no point in attempting to reduce
the endless kinds of language game to a single pattern. Each must be
understood in its own terms.
least action, law of—Principle stating that the actual motion of a conservative
dynamical system between two points takes place in such a way that the
action has a minimum value with reference to all other paths between the
points which correspond to the same energy.
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm von—German scientist, mathematician and
philosopher. He was trained in law, diplomacy, history, mathematics,
theology and philosophy, and became the most notable thinker of the
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seventeenth century. Known for the view that all PROPOSITIONS are
necessary in this ‘best of all possible worlds’, Leibniz’s conception of the
universe united beauty with mathematical order. He described the vital
elements of this world as ‘monads’ (true atoms that exist metaphysically);
their co-existence and relations are regulated by a pre-established harmony,
which is the work of God. Leibniz devoted much of his work to the reform of
science through the use of a universal scientific language and a CALCULUS
of reasoning, a method which was a forerunner to modern symbolic LOGIC.
He and NEWTON independently developed the calculus.
Leibniz’s law—Also known as ‘the indiscernibility of identicals’ or its converse
‘the identity of indiscernibles’, this law states that if x and y are identical, then
x has every property y has, and y has every property x has.
Lévi-Strauss, Claude—French structuralist philosopher; known for his
application of STRUCTURALISM to anthropology. He investigated the
relationship between culture (an exclusive attribute of humanity) and nature,
based on the distinguishing characteristic of man: the ability to communicate
in a language.
Lewes, George Henry—British psychologist and philosopher. He contributed to
the development of EMPIRICAL METAPHYSICS, and stressed introspection
in psychology, using both SUBJECTIVE and OBJECTIVE methods; he viewed
mind as similar to body, with aspects that can be logically separated yet are
not wholly distinct.
Liebig, Baron Justus von—German chemist. An outstanding figure in chemical
education, and the greatest chemist of his time.
Lobachevski, Nikolai—Russian mathematician, contemporary of BOLYAI, who
also challenged the parallel postulate of EUCLID. He assumed that through a
point outside a given line there are at least two lines parallel to the given line.
He then constructed a non-Euclidean GEOMETRY in which the sum of the
angles of a triangle is not greater than 180°, and the smaller the triangle is in
area, the closer to 180° is the sum of the angles.
Locke, John—English philosopher and political theorist. He argued that none of
our ideas are innate and therefore all our knowledge must come from
experience. This position makes him the first of the three great British
EMPIRICISTS (the others are BERKELEY and HUME). Influential also in
political theory, he is renowned for his advocacy of (traditional) liberalism
and natural rights.
logarithm—The index (exponent) which changes a given number, called the base,
into any required number. The solution of the equation bx=N, where b and N
are known, is a logarithm.
logic—From the Greek logos meaning ‘knowledge’ as well as ‘reason, speech,
discourse, definition, principle or ratio’. Generally speaking, something is
logical when it makes sense, although more strictly, it refers to the theory of
the conditions of valid INFERENCE. The term was first used by Alexander of
Aphrodisius (2nd century AD), then developed in ARISTOTLE’S logical
writings which were called the Organon, or instrument of science. Traditional
logic included various sorts of categorization of some types of correct and
incorrect reasoning, and included the study of the SYLLOGISM. Most logical
theory today is done by exhibiting the types of sentences, and giving rules for
what correctly may be reasoned on the basis of sentences of different types, in
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symbolic form; that is, with SYMBOLS taking the place of logically relevant
words or connections. This logic, which concentrates on reasoning that is
correct because of SYNTAX, is deemed FORMAL, and is contrasted with
informal logic which analyses arguments semantically, and relies less heavily
on symbols and mathematical procedures.
logical atomism—The position, associated with RUSSELL and WITTGENSTEIN,
that language might be analysed into ‘atomic propositions’, the smallest and
simplest sentences, each of which corresponds to an ‘atomic fact’, one of the
simplest bits of reality. See ELEMENTARY PROPOSITION.
logical empiricism—A doctrine of meaning holding that a word or sentence has
meaning only if rules involving sense experience can be given for applying or
verifying it. ANALYTIC sentences are excepted. Such rules may further
constitute the meaning.
logical positivism—See POSITIVISM.
logical truth—A sentence is logically true when it is true merely because of its
logical structure. It is distinguished from analytically true sentences which
are true merely because of the meaning of the words. Logical truths are also
called ‘logically necessary’ sentences, but these should be distinguished from
(metaphysically) necessary truths, since some of these are neither analytically
nor logically true (i.e. KANT’S belief that ‘All events have a cause’ is a
necessarily true, but not logically nor analytically true). ‘TAUTOLOGY’ is
often used as a synonym for ‘logical truth’ and sentences that are neither
logically true nor logically false—that are merely true or false—are said to be
logically contingent truths or falsehoods. See ANALYTIC/SYNTHETIC,
NECESSARY/CONTINGENT TRUTH.
logically proper name—A proper name constituting a definite DESCRIPTION of
the kind required by Russell’s LOGICAL ATOMISM. Such names had
meanings that were strictly identifiable with their bearers and were
meaningless if their bearers did not exist. RUSSELL thought demonstratives
(i.e., ‘that’ and ‘this’) were logically proper names. Ordinary names cannot
have their meanings strictly identified with their bearers since we associate a
variety of descriptions with the proper names we use. They depend upon
such descriptions to ensure their meaningfulness.
logicism—The view pioneered by FREGE and RUSSELL, holding that received
mathematics, in particular arithmetic, is part of LOGIC. Its aim was to provide
a system of primitives and AXIOMS (which upon interpretation yielded
logical truths) such that all arithmetical notions were definable in the system
and all theorems of arithmetic were theorems of the system. If successful the
programme would ensure that our knowledge of mathematical truths was of
the same status as our knowledge of logical truths.
Lorentz transformation—This refers to a set of equations for transforming the
position-motion parameter from an observer at one point, O (x,y,z), to an
observer at O’(x’,y’,z’), moving relative to one another. The equations replace
the Galilean transformation equations of NEWTONIAN MECHANICS in
RELATIVITY problems.
Lotze, Rudolf Hermann—German philosopher and psychologist. A mechanist, he
elaborated the philosophical system of teleological IDEALISM, and aided in
founding the science of physiological psychology.
Lucretius (full name: Titus Lucretius Carus) (96?–55 BC).—Ancient Roman poet/
philosopher. He popularized the scientific and ethical views of the atomists
who believed that things are composed of elementary basic parts.
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Mach, Ernst—Austrian theoretical physicist; the ‘father of logical POSITIVISM’.
He fundamentally reappraised the philosophy of SCIENCE with his belief
that science, partly for historical reasons, contained abstract and untestable
models and concepts, and that it should discard anything that is not
observable.
Maimonides (or Moses ben Maimon) (1135–1204).—Spanish-born Jewish
philosopher and theologian; codifier of the Talmud.
mass—The quantity of matter in a body. It varies with velocity in accordance with
the principle of relativity and is controvertible with energy by EINSTEIN’S
law.
materialism—Any set of doctrines stressing the material over spiritual factors in
METAPHYSICS, value theory, physiology, EPISTEMOLOGY or historical
explanation. In its extreme form, it is the philosophical position that all that
exists is physical. LUCRETIUS and Hobbes are two of the many philosophers
associated with this view. Materialists with respect to mind sometimes argue
that apparently non-physical things like the soul, mind or thoughts are
actually material things. Central-state materialists identify mental events
with physical events central in the body (i.e. the nervous system). Some
materialists, however, think that categorizing things as mental is altogether
mistaken, that mental events do not exist, and that this mode of discourse
should be eliminated as science progresses.
mathematical logic—The application of mathematical techniques to LOGIC, in an
attempt both to deduce new PROPOSITIONS by formal manipulations, and
to detect any underlying inconsistencies. Its study, by many eminent
mathematicians and philosophers, as a means of clarifying the basic concepts
of mathematics, has revealed a number of PARADOXES, several of which
have yet to be resolved. It is also known as symbolic logic.
mathematics, philosophy of—The study of the concepts and justification for the
principles used in mathematics. Two central problems concern what, if
anything, mathematical statements such as ‘2+2=4’ are about, and how it is
that we come to have knowledge of such statements. Questions as to the
origin and nature of our knowledge of them tend to distinguish various
positions within the study: realists hold that it derives from the existence of
abstract entities, the relations among which mathematical statements describe
(also known as PLATONISM); conventionalists hold that such statements are
true merely by convention or fiat; intuitionists restrict the scope of
mathematical knowledge to that which can be proven by constructive
processes alone (also known as CONSTRUCTIVISM); another form of
intuitionism is that of KANT who held that this knowledge is self-evident and
A PRIORI, logicists, such as FREGE and RUSSELL, who to some extent accept
Kant’s view, yet are unsatisfied with its SUBJECTIVE bent, hold that our
knowledge of mathematical truth, is as certain as that of logical truth; and
formalists, like GÖDEL, maintain that mathematical sentences are not about
anything, but are rather to be regarded as meaningless marks.
matrix theory—A branch of mechanics that involves the idea that a measurement
on a system disturbs, to some extent, the system itself. It originated
simultaneously with, but independently of, wave mechanics. It is equivalent
to wave mechanics but here the wave functions are replaced by vectors in a
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suitable space (HILBERT SPACE) and the observable things of the physical
world, e.g., energy, momenta, coordinates, etc., are represented by matrices. A
matrix is a mathematical concept introduced originally to abbreviate the
expression of simultaneous linear equations. It appears as an array of mn
numbers set in m rows and n columns and is a matrix of order m×n.
Maxwell, James Clerk—Scottish physicist, the pioneer of electromagnetism.
Mathematically interpreting FARADAY’S concept of the electromagnetic
FIELD, Maxwell successfully developed the revolutionary field equations
bearing his name. This was an advance that may be ranked in pre-quantal
theoretical physics among NEWTON’S dynamics and EINSTEIN’S
RELATIVITY. He is also known for his early predictions of the existence of
radio waves—the equations of which are fundamental throughout modern
telecommunications—as well as, more importantly, his contributions to the
kinetic theory of gases. He adopted CLAUSIUS’S concept of mean free path
and greatly extended the latter’s statistical approach to the subject by
allowing for all possible speeds in the gas molecules. This resulted in the
celebrated Maxwell distribution of molecular velocities, together with
important applications of the theory to viscosity, conduction of heat, and
diffusion in gases. He also drew upon the work of BOLTZMANN, who took
over his approach.
mechanism—From the Greek m%khan%, ‘machine’. The theory that all phenomena
are explicable by mechanical principles, with the view that all phenomena are
the result of matter in motion and can be explained by its laws. Mechanistic
doctrine holds that nature, like a machine, is a whole whose single function is
served automatically by its parts. As a theory of explanation by efficient as
opposed to final CAUSE, it was first put forth by Leucippus and Democritus
(460–370 BC) as the view that nature is explicable on the basis of atoms in
motion and the void. It was later developed in the seventeenth century as a
mechanical philosophy by GALILEO as well as DESCARTES, for whom the
ESSENCE of matter is EXTENSION, and all physical phenomena is explicable
by mechanical laws.
Meinong, Alexius Meinong—Austrian philosopher who studied under Brentano
and developed the latter’s views on the different sorts of ‘existence’ of the
objects of thought. He is known for the view that there are three distinct
elements in thinking: the mental act, its content and its object. Object is
defined as that towards which a mental act can be directed; it may or may not
be an existing entity. Content is that attribute of the mental act that enables
attention to be directed toward any part.
Mersenne, Marin—Friend and principal correspondent of DESCARTES. Friar
Mersenne, a prolific writer himself, was responsible for collecting for
publication the first six sets of objections to the Meditations.
metalanguage—A language used in talking about another language. In LOGIC,
one distinguishes between the object language and the metalanguage. The
first refers to the signs which refer to the world, the language in use, while the
latter refers to that part of language which refers to the signs of the language
itself. Thus, for example, particular INFERENCES are symbolized in the
object language, but general forms of valid inference are symbolized in the
metalanguage. See SYMBOLS.
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metaphysics—From the Greek ‘above’ or ‘beyond’ physics. This term, which
refers to one of the main branches of philosophy, is said to have been derived
from one of ARISTOTLE’S books, which having followed his book on physics,
was deemed The Metaphysics by a later editor. Metaphysics is thought of as a
study of ultimates, of first and last things, its content going beyond physics,
or any other discipline. It tends toward the building of systems of ideas; and
these ideas either give us some judgement about the nature of reality, or a
reason why we must be content with knowing something less than the nature
of reality, along with a method for taking hold of whatever can be known.
methodology—The systematic analysis and organization of the rational and
experimental principles and processes which must guide a scientific enquiry,
or which constitute the structure of the special sciences more particularly.
Also called scientific method, it is usually considered a branch of LOGIC; in
fact, it is the application of the principles and processes of logic to the special
objects of science; while science in general is accounted for by the
combination of INDUCTION and DEDUCTION as such.
Mill, John Stuart (1806–173)—The most influential English philosopher of his
time. He is known for his thoroughgoing EMPIRICISM, his development of
utilitarianism, and liberal political views, as well as his work on the principles
of scientific enquiry. He held that all INFERENCE is basically INDUCTION
on the basis of the uniformity of nature from one particular event to another
or a group of others. He holds that the conclusion of syllogistic reasoning
always involves the inclusion of the premisses, with knowledge of those in
turn resting on empirical inductions. He is known for his inductive ‘methods
of experimental inquiry’ which define the CAUSE of an event as the sum total
of its necessary conditions positive and negative.
mind/body problem—This involves the question as to the relation between the
mental and the physical, i.e., whether they are distinct, or whether events in
one can be reducible to those of the other. Until recently most philosophers
have held a dualistic view of the relation between mind and body. (See
DUALISM). This is in the tradition of DESCARTES who ascribed mental
attributes to spiritual substances, logically independent of anything physical,
but inhabiting particular bodies in a way not satisfactorily defined. Although
attempts are being made to establish a causal affinity between the mental and
physical, their theoretical relation remains a problem.
modal logic—The study of the features and relations of sentences which include
the following words, and distinctions between types of modal logic:
necessary and ‘possible’ (alethic), ‘ought’ and ‘must’ (deontic), ‘knows’
(epistemic) and ‘before’ (temporal). The study encompasses the methods of
good reasoning involving these sentences in which a modal FALLACY arises
when the premisses ‘It’s necessary that: if p then q’ and ‘p’ are used
mistakenly to derive ‘It’s necessary that q’.
modus ponens—Latin, ‘method of putting’. A rule for correct DEDUCTION of the
form: ‘If p then q; p; therefore q’. It is also called ‘affirming the antecedent’.
modus tollens—Latin, ‘method of taking’. A rule for correct DEDUCTION of the
form: ‘If p then q; it’s not the case that q; therefore it’s not the case that p’. It is
also called ‘denying the consequent’.
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Moleschott, Jacob—Dutch physiologist, a leading representative of scientific
MATERIALISM.
Müller, Johannes Peter—German physiologist and anatomist, widely regarded as
the founder of modern physiology.
momentum—The product of the mass and velocity of a particle.
monism—See DUALISM/MONISM, NEUTRAL MONISM.
Moore, G(eorge) E(dward) (1873–1958). English (Cambridge) philosopher; the
father of ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY, he also led the revolt against IDEALISM
early this century. He was a frequent defender of common sense against
abstruse philosophical theory and PARADOX, and for a philosophical
method based on clarification and analysis of meanings.
moral statistics—The statistical presentation of regularity in free human acts
which are posited under the influence of certain psychic, social, cosmic and
other conditions (i.e. STATISTICS on marriage, suicide, crime, birth,
automobile accidents). The philosophical meaning of such statistics lies in the
fact that they impressively point up the intimate relationship between a
person’s motive for acting and the psychological/physiological conditions
she finds herself in. They demonstrate the impossibility of unmotivated
willing, but they do not prove whether or not, in a particular case, a person
acted without freedom (a moderate DETERMINISM). The metaphysical
question about the freedom of the will cannot be decided by the use of
statistical methods.
morality—From the Latin moralis, which is equivalent to éthikos, meaning ‘custom’
or ‘usage’. One’s morality is one’s tendency to do right or wrong, or one’s
beliefs about what is right and wrong, good or evil. In many usages, it is a
synonym of ‘ETHICS’, although the latter term is generally used to designate
the philosophical study of these matters. The term was introduced to
philosophy by Cicero (106–43 BC), the Roman statesman, orator and political
writer.
morphology—From the Greek morphé, ‘form’, and logos, ‘knowledge’. In biology,
this is the study of the form and structure of plants and animals considered
apart from function; while in linguistics, it is the formal arrangement and
interrelationship of morphemes or the branch of this discipline which studies
these, the smallest meaningful units of language.
multiple regression—A technique which determines the optimum weighting of a
number of independent variables in order to predict a single dependent
variable.
mysticism—From the Greek mystés meaning ‘one initiated into the mysteries’. A
variety of religious practice that relies on direct experience, supposedly of
God and of supernatural truths. Mystics often advocate exercises or rituals
designed to induce the abnormal psychological states in which these
experiences occur. They commonly hold that in these experiences we achieve
union with God or with the divine ground of all being.
natural/artificial language—A natural language is one used by an actual group of
people, that has developed on its own, culturally and historically. An artificial
language, by contrast, is one developed for some purpose. Philosophers use
the term to refer especially to ideal languages, the development of which is
one of the aims of symbolic LOGIC. Computer languages are also examples of
artificial language.
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natural science—The collective sciences or any science that deals with the
physical universe, such as biology, CHEMISTRY and physics.
necessary/contingent truth—According to conditions of modality (concerning the
mode—actuality, possibility, or necessity—in which anything exists) a
PROPOSITION is necessarily true if it is certifiable on A PRIORI grounds, or
on purely logical grounds. It is a stronger kind of truth than a contingent truth
of a proposition which could have been otherwise, but is not as a mere matter
of fact. Many philosophers think that the necessity or contingency of some
fact is a metaphysical matter—a matter of the way the way the external world
is—while others think that this difference is merely a matter of the way we
think and conceive of the world—that a truth taken to be necessary is merely
a conceptual or logical or ANALYTIC truth. See LOGIC, METAPHYSICS,
CONCEPT/CONCEPTUAL.
Neurath, Otto—Austrian philosopher; one of the original members of the
VIENNA CIRCLE. With CARNAP, he invented the doctrine of
PHYSICALISM, stressing the role of PROTOCOL STATEMENTS, i.e.
statements based on observation and referring to SPACE-TIME states.
neuropsychology—A sub-discipline within physiological psychology that
focuses on the interrelationships between neurological processes and
behaviour.
neutral monism—A theory of mind-body relations, found in the philosophies of
JAMES and RUSSELL, which is not dualistic, nor monistic in the conventional
sense. According to this theory, minds and bodies do not differ in their
intrinsic nature; the difference between them lies in the way that a common
(‘neutral’) material is arranged. This material is not one entity (monism), but
consists of many entities (i.e., experiences) of the same fundamental kind.
Newton, Sir Isaac (1642–1727)—Renowned English mathematician and scientist.
In his Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1685–87), he not only
announced his discovery of the Law of Gravity but also presented a new
system of mechanics by which the structure of the universe was to be
understood. He sought the true mechanical laws of nature not on the basis of
A PRIORI principles but on the basis of the most precise observation of
phenomena in nature. One of the important consequences of this work lay in
his development of the proper methods of reasoning; he claimed that
philosophy’s error in seeking the nature of reality was in its insistence on
making DEDUCTIONS from phenomena without knowing first the CAUSES
of phenomena.
Newtonian mechanics—The basis of Newtonian mechanics consists of three
fundamental laws of motion: Law I, every body perseveres in its state of rest
or uniform motion in a straight line except in so far as it is compelled to
change that state by forces impressed on it (the Principle of Inertia). Law II,
the rate of change of linear MOMENTUM is proportional to the force applied,
and takes place in the straight line in which that force acts. Law III, an action
is always opposed by an equal reaction: the mutual actions of two bodies are
always equal an act in opposite directions.
It was Newton’s great achievement to have worked out the mechanics of
celestial and terrestrial motion which gave modern science a solid basis for
the continual development which has since occurred. A more general system
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of mechanics has been given by Einstein in his theory of RELATIVITY. This
reduces to Newtonian mechanics when all velocities relative to the observer
are small compared with those of light.
nihilism—From the Latin nihil, ‘nothing’. A doctrine denying VALIDITY to any
positive alternative, the term has been applied to METAPHYSICS,
EPISTEMOLOGY, ETHICS, politics and theology. It is the name of various
sorts of negative belief: that nothing can be known, or that nothing generally
accepted in science or religion is correct or that the current social order is
worthless, or that nothing in our lives has any value.
nomological—From the Greek nomos ‘law’ and logos, knowledge’. It is
synonymous with ‘nomic’, meaning having to with law. A nomological
regularity is distinguished from a mere (accidental) regularity or coincidence,
in that the first represents a law of nature.
normative—Tending to establish a standard of correctness by prescription of
rules; evaluative rather than descriptive. Normative ETHICS—any system
dictating morally correct conduct—is distinguished from meta-ethics—the
discussion of the meanings of moral terms without issuing directives.
number—A concept of quantity. Natural numbers: {1, 2, 3, 4…}; whole numbers:
{0, 1, 2, 3, 4…}; integers: {-3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3}. There is also the set of real
numbers which is composed of both rational and irrational numbers: the
former are expressed as fractions (i.e., 1/2), while the latter are non-rational,
and not expressible as an integer (i.e., 2). A complex number is the sum of a
real number and an imaginary one (i.e., 3+2i, where i is imaginary). A cardinal
number describes how many members are in a set of things, which could be
either INFINITE (i.e. {2, 4, 6,…}) with no last number in the sequence, or finite
(i.e., {2, 4, 6, 8}).
null hypothesis—See HYPOTHESIS.
objective—(1) Possessing the character of a real object existing independently of
the knowing mind, in contrast with SUBJECTIVE, as that within a subject. (2)
In scholastic terminology, beginning with Duns Scotus (1266/74–1308) and
continuing into the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, objective
designated anything existing as idea or representation in the mind, without
independent existence. The change from sense (2) to (1) was made by KANT,
who understood objective as in the first sense.
Occam’s razor (or Ockham’s)—A general principle of ontological economy that
states that, everything else being equal, the correct or preferable explanation
is the one that is simpler, i.e., that needs fewer basic principles or fewer
explanatory entities. It was named after William of Occam (1285?–?1349), the
English theologian whose work was largely in LOGIC and theory of
meaning. See ONTOLOGY.
ontology/ontological—From the Greek ontos, ‘of being’ and logos, ‘knowledge’.
The term thus means ‘knowledge of being’ and refers to the philosophical
study of being or existence. Although the relation between METAPHYSICS
and ontology is unclear, typical questions which concern the latter are: What
basic sorts of things exist? What are the basic things out of which others are
composed? How are things related to each other? The ontology of a theory
consists of the things which are presupposed by that theory. Simply put,
‘ontological’ means ‘having to do with existence’.
opacity and transparency, referential—The distinction that expresses that
Leibniz’s law is not universally applicable. For example, ‘Cicero’ and ‘Tully’
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have the same reference in that they are two names for the same man. But
suppose that someone, X, does not know this: then it might be true (a) that
Cicero is believed by X to have denounced Catiline, and (b) that Tully is
believed by X not to have denounced Catiline. In other words, although they
are the same man, contrary to Leibniz’s law, Cicero does not appear to have
every property that Tully has. It is usual to call ‘…is believed by X to have
denounced Cataline’ the context of the use of the term ‘Cicero’; in the case
considered, the context is said to be ‘referentially opaque’. In cases where
Leibniz’s law is satisfied, the context is said to be ‘referentially transparent’.
This distinction refers to terms, predicates or PROPOSITIONS and the wider
distinction between intensional or extensional contexts which are created
upon their removal from a sentence. See LEIBNIZ’S LAW, EXTENSION/
INTENSION.
operationism—The view that scientific concepts are to be defined in terms of
experimental operations, and that the meaning of these terms is given by
these procedures. Operationists argue that any terms not definable in this
way should be eliminated from science as meaningless. With respect to
QUANTUM physics, this would mean referring to the existence of particles as
visual effects which exist under certain conditions, when certain
measurements are carried out. However, they are realists in that they hold
that the objects science theorizes about are (sometimes) true. It is contrasted
with the anti-REALISMM of INSTRUMENTALISM, although they share an
emphasis on understanding science in terms of its experimental means.
operator/logical operator—That which effects an operation and in LOGIC is
usually expressed as a SYMBOL. Corresponding to each FUNCTION on
objects there is a symbolic operation effected by the symbol for that function.
Thus, if f(x) is a function and a an object, f(a) is an object—the object generated
from a by application of f(x). But ‘f(a)’ is a name formed by conjoining the
symbol ‘f’ for the function with the name ‘a’, ‘f’ is then an operator on names
of objects, and is a name-forming operator; that is, when applied to the name
of an object, the result is another name. Logical operators are the truth-
functional operators and quantifiers, (see QUANTIFICATION). The former
are also called sentential operators because, when applied to sentences, they
yield another sentence.
‘order from disorder’ principle—The idea that all events happen from definite
causes, according to definite laws and a certain necessity, if only our
knowledge could encompass the full scope of these seemingly random events
throughout eternity. It entails reasoning from indeterminacy to determinacy
and the methodological movement from CHANCE and PROBABILITY to
CERTAINTY. See METHODOLOGY, RANDOMNESS.
ordinary language philosophy—A branch of twentieth-century philosophy (most
closely associated with WITTGENSTEIN, AUSTIN and RYLE) that held that
philosophical problems arise because of confusions about, or complexities in,
ordinary language. These might be solved (or dissolved) by attention to the
ways the language is used. Thus, for example, problems about free will might
be solved (or shown to be empty) by close examination of the actual use in
English of such words as ‘free’, ‘will’, ‘responsible’, and so on.
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organizational theory—Generally, this is the sociological study dealing with the
patterned behaviour of interacting individuals or groups. More specifically, it
may refer to the interaction between people in a particular organization, e.g.
in industry, the armed forces, etc. It is usually undertaken with a view to
making the organization more efficient and concerns itself with issues like
improving relations between management and workers, improving
communication channels or improving decision-making procedures.
orientalism—A general designation used loosely to cover the philosophical
tradition of the Orient, extending far into antiquity and to some extent
characterizing early Greek thinking. Oriental philosophy, though by no
means homogeneous, nevertheless shares one characteristic: the practical
outlook on life (ETHICS linked with METAPHYSICS), involving an absence
of clear-cut distinctions between pure speculation and religious motivation,
often combining folklore, folk etymology, practical wisdom, pre-scientific
speculation, even magic, with flashes of philosophical insight.
oscillator—A system which rhythmically stores and releases energy at a particular
frequency (e.g., an electric circuit in which electrical oscillations occur freely
and which is usually designed specifically for this purpose).
paradigm—From the Greek paradeigma ‘a pattern, model or plan’. A completely
clear, typical and indisputable example of a kind of thing.
paradox—A clearly false or self-contradictory conclusion deduced apparently
correctly from apparently true assumptions. There are many kinds of
paradoxes and philosophers often find principles of wide-ranging
importance while trying to discover what has gone wrong in a paradox.
There is a whole family of them known as the self-referential paradoxes
which has been of particular concern to philosophers and logicians, and some
of which have played a crucial role in the historical development of the
foundations of mathematics. One example is the well-known statement of a
Cretan that ‘All Cretans are liars’, the Liar paradox, while another is Russell’s
paradox which had serious repercussions in the theory of classes and thus
also in the foundations of mathematics. See RUSSELL’S PARADOX, TYPES,
THEORY OF.
parapsychology—The investigation of prescience, telepathy and other alleged
psychical phenomena which seem to elude ordinary physical and
physiological explanation.
pari passu—Latin, meaning ‘with equal pace’; simultaneously and equally.
Pascal, Blaise—French philosopher, mathematician and physicist, who made
great contributions to science through his studies in hydrodynamics and the
mathematical theory of PROBABILITY. Dissatisfied with experimentation, he
turned to the study of man and spiritual problems.
path analysis—The analysis of relationships among a series of variables which
attempts to establish a CAUSAL chain between them, usually by the use of
MULTIPLE-REGRESSION—a technique which determines the optimum
weighting of a number of independent variables in order to predict a single
dependent variable. The method is generally presented in path diagrams in
which asymmetric (one-way) relations between variables are represented by
arrows.
Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich—Russian physiologist and pioneer of the study of
conditioning. In his study of digestion which won him a Nobel Prize, he
observed that dogs salivated in anticipation of receiving food, a response
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which by 1901, he had named a ‘conditioned REFLEX’. This became a
cornerstone of American BEHAVIOURISM before World War I and is now
regarded as a fundamental aspect of learning.
Peano, Guiseppe (1858–1932).—Italian mathematician who made several
contributions to MATHEMATICAL LOGIC. He developed a logical system
which permits the writing of every PROPOSITION exclusively in SYMBOLS,
in an attempt to emancipate the strict logical part of reasoning from verbal
language and its vagueness. Among his contributions to the field of
mathematics was a postulate system known as Peano’s Postulates, from
which the entire arithmetic of natural NUMBERS can be derived. See
‘PEANO’S ARITHMETIC’.
Peano’s arithmetic—This designates Peano’s five postulates for the arithmetic of
natural NUMBERS. In the first version, the first postulate referred to 1 as the
first number, while in the later versions, as here, he began with 0 as the first
number: (P1) 0 is a number (P2). The successor of any number is a number
(P3). No two numbers have the same successor. (P4) 0 is not the successor of
any number (P5). If P is a property such that: (a) 0 has the property P; (b)
whenever a number n has the property P, then the successor of n also has the
property P, then every number has the property p. The last AXIOM is the
famous ‘principle of mathematical induction’.
Pearson chi-square (x2) tests—There are several statistical tests included here, all
of the them variations of the basic chi-square statistic (the use of a theoretical
model to determine expected results and to gauge the differences between
expectation and observation). They are used as tests of the amount of data
conformity between a large sample and a population and as tests of
association between two samples.
Peirce, Charles Sanders (Santiago)—American philosopher and logician. Very
little of his work was published during his life, and his views were, until
recently, unknown except in the version popularized by JAMES. Today,
however, he is recognized as a metaphysician of considerable power, the
father of PRAGMATISM, and a significant contributor to philosophy of
SCIENCE and LOGIC.
phenomenalism—Literally, a theory based on appearances. This is a doctrine
which holds that the knowledge man can reach is never more than the
knowledge of phenomena, because man’s limited ability to know necessarily
deforms objects according to one’s own SUBJECTIVE nature.
phenomenology—A school of philosophy deriving from the thought of Husserl
(1859–1938). Phenomenologists generally believe that INTUITIONS or direct
awarenesses form the basis of truth, and the foundation on which philosophy
should proceed: by introspection, bracketing, and exploration of the ‘inner’,
SUBJECTIVE world of experiences. This takes the form of a
phenomenological reduction in which normal assumptions and
PRESUPPOSITIONS (particularly those of science and including belief in the
external world) are suspended and we attempt to see things purely, as they
fundamentally appear to consciousness.
phenomenon—From the Greek phainomenon, meaning ‘that which appears’.
Philosophers sometimes use this term in the ordinary sense, referring merely
to something that happens, but often it is used in a more technical way,
referring to the way a thing seems to us—to something as we perceive it. It is
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contrasted with noumena which are insensible and perhaps rationally
ascertainable things as they really are, i.e., things-in-themselves.
photon—The QUANTUM of electromagnetic radiation. For some purposes
photons can be considered as elementary particles travelling at the velocity of
light. See ELECTROMAGNETISM.
philosophy of mathematics—see MATHEMATICS, PHILOSOPHY OF.
physicalism—Although this term is usually taken to be synonymous with
MATERIALISM—which refers to the philosophical position that all that exists
is physical—it may also refer to the position that everything is explainable by
physics. It constitutes a doctrine of the VIENNA CIRCLE of logical positivists
requiring that PROTOCOL STATEMENTS of any HYPOTHESIS be expressed
in a physicalistic language.
picture theory—WITTGENSTEIN’S theory of language which holds that the
primary purpose of language is to state facts. When a fact is pictured there is
a structural similarity between the language used and what is pictured. A
secondary purpose of language is to state tautologies, which are true but
empty. They tell us nothing but that their use is necessary. The operations of
both LOGIC and mathematics are series of tautologies. Any statement which
fails to picture a fact, or to express a tautology, is nonsense. Statements of both
METAPHYSICS and ETHICS fall into this category. See TAUTOLOGY.
Planck, Max Carl Ernst Ludwig (1858–1947).—German physicist, famous for his
enunciation of QUANTUM theory. He introduced the findings of his early
work on THERMODYNAMICS into the problem of black-body radiation, in
search for a theoretical explanation for the equilibrium reached within a
heated cavity based on temperature only, independent of wall density.
Drawing upon the relationship between ENTROPY and PROBABILITY put
forth by BOLTZMANN, Planck introduced a quantum variable of action (h)
with a discrete spectrum for radiation into his account. The result was his
celebrated formula for radiation density as a function of frequency and
temperature, from which he was able to calculate BOLTZMANN’S
CONSTANT and his own quantum of action.
Plato (428?–348? BC) Ancient Greek philosopher, student of SOCRATES, possibly
the greatest philosopher of all time. His writings, which often take the form of
dialogues with Socrates, contain the first substantial statements of many of
the questions and answers in philosophy. His best-known doctrine is the
theory of the ‘forms’ or ‘ideas’: these are the innate, general or perfect
versions of characteristics we ordinarily encounter. They are eternal and
unchanging and exist independently of any earthly thing that participates in
them.
Platonism—Various sorts of views growing from aspects of PLATO’S thought.
Platonists tend to emphasize Plato’s notion of a transcendent reality, believing
that the visible world is not the real world, and Plato’s rationalism—that the
important truths about reality and about how we ought to live are truths of
reason. In the philosophy of MATHEMATICS, Platonism designates the belief
that mathematical objects exist independently of our thought; that
mathematical statements are true (or false) independently of our ability to
prove them; and often includes the view that the subjects of these statements
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(NUMBERS) are abstract entities, the relations of which true mathematical
statements describe.
pluralism—The view that the world contains many kinds of basic entities, which
in their uniqueness cannot be reduced to just one (MONISM) or two
(DUALISM). The doctrine of LOGICAL ATOMISM developed by RUSSELL is
perhaps the most thoroughgoing pluralism in the history of philosophy.
Poincaré, (Jules) Henri (1854–1912).—French mathematician, engineer and
philosopher of SCIENCE. He is often labelled a conventionalist because he
argued that the fundamental AXIOMS of geometrical systems express neither
A PRIORI necessities nor CONTINGENT TRUTHS, and because he detected
important definitional elements in physics. In mathematical philosophy he
was an intuitionist, attacking the LOGICISM of RUSSELL and PEANO. See
CONVENTIONALISM, INTUITIONISM.
Popper, Karl Raimund—Austrian philosopher of SCIENCE, famous for his
emphasis on falsifiability rather than on verifiability in science. This means
that the most reliable criterion for truth lies in hypotheses which can be
disproved by negative instances. He is also known for his defence of
liberalism in social theory. See HYPOTHESIS.
positivism/logical positivism—The philosophy associated with Auguste
COMTE, which holds that scientific knowledge is the only valid kind of
knowledge, and that anything else is idle speculation. In its earlier versions,
the methods of science were held to have the potential not only of reforming
philosophy, but society as well. Sometimes this term is loosely used to refer to
logical positivism which is a twentieth-century outgrowth of more general
nineteenth-century positivism.
post hoc—Latin, ‘after that’. A mistaken kind of reasoning, also known as false
CAUSE, which states ‘post hoc ergo propter hoc’ (‘after that, therefore because of
that’). It involves the misidentification of x as the cause of y because x happens
before y (for example, if one supposed that a falling barometer caused it to
rain).
pragmatism/neo-pragmatism—From the Greek pragma, ‘thing, fact, matter, affair’.
A philosophical movement in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries whose
emphasis lay in interpreting ideas through their consequences. As a school of
philosophy, it is associated mainly with American philosophers in the
beginning of the twentieth-century, especially PEIRCE, JAMES and Dewey.
Peirce, who adapted the term from KANT in 1878, later called his version
‘pragmaticism’ in order to distinguish the original philosophy from the neo-
pragmatism which was less strictly defined. The early pragmatists
emphasized the relevance of the practical application of things, their
connections to our lives, our activities and values. They demanded
instrumental definitions of philosophically relevant terms, deeming much of
the language of METAPHYSICS meaningless, and urged that we judge beliefs
on the basis of their benefit to the believer.
praxis—In general this term means ‘accepted practice or custom’ or ‘practical
human activity’, but more particularly, as it was used by Marx, it refers to the
union of theory and practice.
predicate calculus—See PROPOSITIONAL/PREDICATE CALCULUS.
presupposition—Something assumed beforehand, for example, as the basis of an
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argument. The statement ‘He has stopped drinking excessively’ presupposes
that at one time he was drinking excessively.
prima facie—Latin, ‘at first appearance’. Based on the first impression: what
would be true, or seem to be true, in general, or before additional information
is added about the particular case. Thus, philosophers speak of ‘prima facie
obligations’, those things that by and large people ought to do, but that might
not be real duties in particular cases, given additional considerations.
private language argument—WITTGENSTEIN’S argument which states that if
there were private events we would be unable to categorize or talk about
them. In order for it to be possible to name or categorize something, there
must exist rules of correct naming and categorization. Without the possibility
of public check, there would be no distinction between our feeling that we
reported them accurately and our really doing so, such that nothing could
count as our doing so correctly or incorrectly. Thus, there could be no such
thing as a ‘private language’—a language naming private events.
probability—From the Latin probare, ‘to prove, to approve’, which is related to the
Greek eulogon meaning ‘reasonable or sensible’. The term thus refers to the
likelihood of the happening of an event, or of the truth of a PROPOSITION.
Where conclusions follow by necessity in deductive INFERENCE they follow
only by probability in INDUCTION. Probability theory has been developed
into a very sophisticated theory in modern mathematics. When probability is
represented by a given number, it is usually on a scale from 0 (impossible) to 1
(definite). To say that something is probable may be to say that it has a
probability of more than 0.5. There has been philosophical controversy about
what it really means to say that an event has a certain probability. Some
philosophers argue that saying a die has a probability of 1/6 of coming up six
means that one is justified in expecting it to come up six only to the degree 1/6, or
that this number should measure the strength of this belief.
problem of ‘other minds’—The problem which questions the ground (if any)
there is for thinking that anyone else has a mind, and is not, for example, just
a body with external appearance and behaviour like one’s own. It hinges on
the fact that a person’s mind and its contents can only be ‘perceived’ by that
person who is thus unable to perceive anyone else’s. Some philosophers
(RYLE, for example) think that the absurdity of this problem shows that there
is something wrong with the view of the mental that leads to it.
procedural explanation—A type of explanation that uses simulation to arrive at
solutions to problems. Central to this approach is the idea of representational
knowledge about the world as procedures within a system. In behavioural
science it provides an alternative to causal or quasi-causal modes of
explanation. It may also refer to programs in a computer language in which
the meanings of words and sentences are conveniently expressed, and the
execution of these programs corresponds to reasoning from the meanings.
proposition—From the Latin proponere, ‘to set forth or propose’. This term has
been used in a variety of ways. Sometimes it means merely a sentence or a
statement. Perhaps the most common modern use is the one in which a
proposition is what is expressed by a (declarative) sentence: an English
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sentence and its French translation express the same proposition, and so do
‘Steven is Ed’s father’ and ‘Ed’s male parent is Steven’.
propositional function—A technical term due to RUSSELL, used to denote that
for which a predicate of predicate LOGIC stands. An n-place predicate, when
complemented by n singular terms, yields a sentence that expresses a
PROPOSITION about the objects denoted by those terms. The n-place
propositional function for which the predicate stands is such that when
applied to n objects, the result is a proposition concerning those objects. Just
as two different sentences may express the same proposition, two different
predicates may stand for the same propositional function.
prepositional/predicate calculus—The two logical calculi most commonly
encountered. Any FORMAL system of LOGIC can be called a propositional
calculus if it consists of a specification of a formal language, the SYMBOLS of
which are either propositional variables or connectives (where the latter
represent such connectives as ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘not’, ‘if…then’), and a set of
AXIOMS and/or rules governing the connectives of the language.
‘Propositional calculus’ usually refers to any system in which the formally
VALID arguments can be shown to be valid by application to the standard
two-valued truthtable definitions of the logical connectives. It is also known
as ‘sentential’ logic or calculus (see VALIDITY).
Used without qualification, predicate calculus usually means ‘classical
first-order predicate calculus’. This is the system obtained by extending the
axioms and/or rules of propositional calculus by adding similar ones for the
quantifiers which are designed to treat universally quantified sentences as
INFINITE conjunctions and existentially quantified sentences as infinite
disjunctions. It deals with sentences using logical terms such as ‘all’, ‘some’,
‘no’, or ‘there exists at least one’. It is also known as ‘quantifier’ logic or
calculus. See QUANTIFICATION, UNIVERSAL/EXISTENTIAL.
protocol statement—A statement consisting of an observation report describing
directly given experience or sense data. Also called ‘basic sentences’, these
were regarded by logical positivists of the VIENNA CIRCLE as the basis of all
science, and of intelligibility in any field. CARNAP argued that protocol
statements can be expressed in the language of physics.
Ptolemy, Claudius—(second century AD) Hellenic scientist and philosopher. His
great work in astronomy dealing with all of the planets and 1,022 stars,
published around AD 150, held the earth to be a globe in the centre of the
world system, and the heavens to make a diurnal revolution around an axis
passing through the centre of the earth. This system was accepted until
COPERNICUS in the sixteenth century. His philosophy was influenced by
Platonism, Stoicism and neo-Pythagoreanism, as well as by ARISTOTLE.
quantification, universal/existential—In traditional LOGIC, quantification is the
consideration of the totality of objects under discussion in a statement, which
necessarily precedes the assessment of its truth or falsity. Universal quantifier
is the name given to the notation (x) prefixed to a logical formula A
(containing the free variable x) to express that A holds for all values of x—
usually, for all values of x within a certain range or domain of values, which
either is implicit in the context or is indicated by the notation through some
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convention. Similarly, existential quantifier is the name given to the notation
Ex prefixed to a logical formula E (containing the free variable x) to express
that E holds for some (i.e. at least one) value of x—usually, for some value of x
within a certain range or domain. The E which forms part of the notation is
often inverted, and various alternative notations also occur.
quantum field theory—A quantum mechanical theory in which particles are
represented by FIELDS whose normal modes of oscillation are quantized.
Elementary particle interactions are described by relativistically invariant
theories of quantized fields. In QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS, for
example, charged particles can emit or absorb a PHOTON, the quantum of the
electro-magnetic field. Quantum field theories naturally predict the existence
of antiparticles and both particles and antiparticles can be created or
destroyed; a photon can be converted into an electron plus its antiparticle, the
positron. These theories provide a proof of the connection between spin and
the STATISTICS underlying the Pauli exclusion principle.
quantum/quanta—From the Latin quantum, ‘how much’. Used in philosophy to
refer to a FINITE and determinate quantity, the term has passed into physics
where its reference is to the packets of energy, or quanta, the basic indivisible
units of QUANTUM MECHANICS.
quantum electrodynamics—A relativistic theory of QUANTUM MECHANICS
concerned with the motions and interactions of electrons, muons and
PHOTONS, i.e., with electromagnetic interactions. Its predictions have
proven highly accurate.
quantum mechanics—A system of mechanics used to explain the behaviour of
atoms, molecules, and elementary particles. In 1901 PLANCK suggested that
energy must be radiated in discrete units or quanta. In 1913 BOHR applied
this theory to the structure of the atom; later his ‘solar system’ model of the
atom was superseded by the formal equations of Heisenberg and
SCHRÖDINGER. These yield the required predictions of the frequency and
amplitude of radiation emitted by the atom. But one consequence, the
uncertainty principle, discovered by Heisenberg in 1927, is that the variables
usually interpreted as specifying the position and the MOMENTUM of sub-
atomic particles cannot both take definite values simultaneously. This places
severe limits on the degree to which these particles or wave-packets can be
interpreted as ordinary spatio-temporal objects. The problem thus becomes a
locus of dispute between realist and formalist philosophies of science. In
addition the conception of fundamental particles as more like disembodied
waves than particles challenges a simple material view of the world.
Quetelet, Lambert Adolphe Jacques—Belgian statistician and astronomer. He
was DURKHEIM’S predecessor and the founder of social physics. In his
greatest book, Sur L’Homme (1835), he showed the use that may be made of the
theory of probabilities, as applied to ‘l’homme moyen’ or average person.
Quine, Willard Van Orman (1908–)—Contemporary American philosopher,
professor at Harvard since 1946. Known primarily as a logician, his interests
and important works extend over many of the basic problems in
SEMANTICS, EPISTEMOLOGY and METAPHYSICS.
Ramsey, Frank Plumpton—English mathematical philosopher. Expanding upon
the logical problems raised by RUSSELL and WITTGENSTEIN, he made a
fundamental distinction between human LOGIC, which deals with useful
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mental habits and is applicable to the realm of practical probability, and formal
logic, which is concerned exclusively with the rules of consistent thought.
randomness—In common usage something happens randomly when it is not
determined by previous events. In PROBABILITY theory, though, in order for
an event to be random it must be equally as likely to occur as any other. It
defines equiprobability just as it is defined by it. With respect to human action
it must be distinguished from arbitrariness as this applies to the random
behaviour of unpredictable particles in QUANTUM MECHANICS.
realism/anti-realism—From the Latin res meaning ‘thing’, from which realitas is
also derived. Realism is, in general, the view that some sort of entity has
external existence, independent of the mind. Anti-realists think that that sort
of entity is only a product of our thought, perhaps only as a result of an
artificial convention. Realists quarrel with anti-realists in many philosophical
areas: in METAPHYSICS, about the reality of UNIVERSALS, and in ETHICS,
about the reality of the moral categories. Scientific realists sometimes hold
that theoretical entities are mind-independent, or that laws in science reflect
external realities (i.e. are not merely humanly constructed), or that the
universals discovered by science are real and mind independent.
reducibility, axiom of—Russell’s axiom, necessary in connection with the
ramified theory of types, if that theory is to be adequate for classical
mathematics, but the admissibility of which has been much disputed. An
exact statement of the axiom can only be made in the context of a detailed
formulation of the ramified theory of types, although it might be said that it
cancels a large part of the restrictive consequence of the prohibition against
impredicative definition, and reduces that theory to the simple theory of
types. See TYPES, THEORY OF.
reductionism—The attempt to reduce one science to another by demonstrating
that the key terms of the one are definable in the language of the other, and
that the conclusions of the one are derivable from the PROPOSITIONS of the
other. Reductionism about some notion is the idea that that notion can be
reduced—can be given a ‘reductive analysis’—and perhaps that it thus can be
eliminated. In the social sciences, it operates by holding that social
phenomena can be defined in terms of the sum of individuals’ behaviour,
such that any statement about a social phenomena may be reduced to what
individual people do, and social theory may be in principle be reduced to
psychology.
reflex/reflex theory—A reflex is an immediate, unlearned response to a specific
stimulus. The reflex theory of action was proposed by DESCARTES (1650);
Marshall Hall (1833) and CABANIS (1802) were among the first to relate the
concept to the nervous system. PAVLOV’S work on reflex-action, which has
become a standard topic in psychology, is often associated with reflexology.
This is a mechanistic, behaviouristic point of view that argues that all
psychological processes may be represented as reflexes and combinations of
reflexes. See MECHANISM.
refutation—The demonstration by means of argument that some position is
mistaken. This is not merely an attempt at rebuttal, but properly speaking, a
demonstration successfully showing that a claim is false or position
untenable.
relative truth/relativism—Truth which may vary from individual to individual,
group to group, time to time, having no OBJECTIVE standard and usually
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implicated in a subjectivistic theory of knowledge. In EPISTEMOLOGY and
ETHICS, relativism denotes the theoretical position which emphasizes this
kind of truth. See ABSOLUTIST/RELATIVIST DEBATE.
relativity, special/general theories of—The former contains the famous E=MC2
formula, while the latter deals with SPACE-TIME curvature. The special
theory of 1905, entails EINSTEIN’S rejection of the notion of an ABSOLUTE
SPACE AND TIME. The new view holds that SIMULTANEITY can be
established only within a given inertial system, and will not be valid for
observers in systems which are in motion relative to the given system.
According to this demonstrable theory, mass increases and time slows down
as velocity increases, and time is regarded as a fourth dimension. The
consequences are such that the same event, viewed from inertial systems in
motion with respect to each other will occur at different times, bodies will
measure out at different lengths, and clocks will run at different speeds. The
general theory of 1916 generalized the results of the special theory from
inertial systems to non-linear transformations of co-ordinates. This was
necessary in order to account for the proportionality between gravitational
mass and inert mass. In the theory, gravitation is reduced to or is an effect of
space-time curvature, and depends upon the masses distributed through the
universe. Thus, the concept of action at a distance is discarded. Confirmation
of the general theory is much weaker than that of the special theory, but the
bending of light rays as they pass through a strong FIELD of gravitation has
apparently been observed. One consequence of this theory is that the universe
is FINITE but unbounded and it is thus consonant with the cosmological
picture of an expanding universe.
Royce, Josiah—American philosopher, influenced by Hegel, who developed his
own philosophy of absolute IDEALISM. He argued that to have a conception
of an orderly continuous world it is necessary to assume that there is an
‘absolute experience to which all facts are known and all facts are subject to
universal law’.
Russell, Bertrand (Arthur William) (1872–1970). British philosopher. He is
perhaps the best-known philosopher of the twentieth century, as well as the
founder (with WHITEHEAD) of contemporary symbolic LOGIC. He was also
the leader (with MOORE) of the twentieth century revolt against IDEALISM,
though some of his views—for example, on our knowledge of externals—
tended to be less in accord with common sense than Moore’s. Owing to his
pacifism, his criticism of Christianity and his advocacy of freer sexual
morality, he was a controversial public figure; his views even led him to be
fired from teaching positions and jailed.
Russell’s paradox—The PARADOX concerned with the set of sets which are not
members of themselves (i.e., is a set a member of itself? If it is, it isn’t. If is
isn’t, it is). It has resulted in some complications in set theory. See SET
THEORY, TYPES, THEORY OF.
Ryle, Gilbert—English (Oxford) philosopher and leading early figure in
ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY and ORDINARY LANGUAGE PHILOSOPHY. He
did important work in philosophy of LOGIC and of mind; in The Concept of
Mind (1949), his key work, he argued that cartesian DUALISM was based on a
category mistake.
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Saussure, Ferdinand De—Swiss linguist and philosopher, known for his work on
structural linguistics and his influence on contemporary French
STRUCTURALISM.
scepticism—From the Greek skepsis, ‘consideration’ or ‘doubt’. The view that
reason has no capacity to come to any conclusions at all, or else that reason is
capable of nothing beyond very modest results. This position questions not so
much the truth of a particular belief, but the VALIDITY of the justifications for
it. In fact, consistent scepticism is close to agnosticism and NIHILISM. The
more extreme sceptics are often called Pyrrhonists, after Pyrrho the founder
of the sceptical tradition. HUME is known as a champion of modern
scepticism.
Schlick, Moritz (1882–1936).—German founder of the VIENNA CIRCLE, leading
figure in the development of logical POSITIVISM. His own view was called
‘Consistent Empiricism’.
Schröder, Ernst—German logician and mathematician. He systematized and
completed the work begun by BOOLE and DE MORGAN in the ALGEBRA of
LOGIC. His contributions to the algebra of relations have particular
importance.
Schrödinger, Erwin (1887–1961).—Austrian physicist, born and educated in
Vienna. He was the founder of WAVE-MECHANICS and originator in 1926 of
the Schrödinger equation describing the QUANTUM behaviour of electrons
and other particles. This PRESUPPOSED EINSTEIN’S treatment of light as
PHOTONS associated with electromagnetic waves, but taken one step further
to the development of a fundamental differential equation which was seen to
govern particle behaviour in a wave FIELD. He also proved that this theory
was mathematically equivalent to matrix mechanics and along with
Heisenberg, BOHR, Pauli and Dirac, played a vital role in the in the creation
of modern quantum theory.
science, philosophy of—A discipline which attempts to relate philosophy to the
fields of scientific enquiry. Depending upon the philosopher and the area of
science, its goal is to discover the nature of science, or the nature of scientific
method, or the LOGIC of science, or to explore the interfaces of the fields of
science, or to axiomatize the sciences. It involves the question of what
constitutes genuine science from pseudo-science, and considers the empirical
collection of data and inductive extrapolations, as well as the role of valid
explanations, models and theories, and to what extent these correspond to
objective reality (realism vs. anti-realism and instrumentalism). Although the
philosophy of science extends back to the origins of Western philosophy,
when emphasis was on scientific knowledge, it is more appropriate to regard
it as beginning with the remarkable development of the sciences in the
modern period.
semantics—From the Greek semantikos, ‘significant meaning’, which is from sema,
‘sign’. Semantics is that part of language which has to do with meaning and
reference. The term was first used in a technical sense in philology, where it
stands for the historical study, empirically oriented, of the changes of
meanings in words. In philosophy, semantics is usually considered as the
study and interpretation of formal SYMBOLS. It is concerned with the
relations between signs and the objects which they designate, mostly in
contrast with SYNTAX which designates the rules of FORMALISM in
themselves.
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sensationalism—From the Latin sensatio, which is from sentire, ‘to feel or
perceive’. Subvariety of EMPIRICISM which asserts that all knowledge is
ultimately derived form sensations. Hobbes is considered the founder of
modern sensationalism and Condillac is its most typical exponent.
sense and reference—These terms render a distinction drawn by FREGE. The
‘sense’ (Sinn) of an expression is its meaning, as opposed to that which the
expression names, its ‘reference’ (Bedeutung). Expressions can have different
meanings, but the same reference: e.g. ‘the Morning Star’ does not mean the
same as ‘the Evening Star’, but both have the same reference, the planet
Venus. The terms are synonomous with connotation and DENOTATION.
sense modality—In BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE, under the general heading of
sense, there are its primary modalities. Five criteria distinguish these: they
have (1) different receptive organs, that (2) respond to characteristic stimuli.
Each set of receptive organs has (3) its own nerve that goes to (4) a different
part of the brain, and (5) the resultant sensations are different on the basis of
these criteria. Nine senses have been identified: vision, audition, kinesthesis,
vestibular, tactile, temperature, pain, taste and smell.
set theory—Sets (or classes) occur naturally in mathematics, but their importance
was only appreciated after G.Cantor (1845–1918) had developed the theory of
INFINITE sets. His ideas formed the basis for the LOGIC of FREGE and
RUSSELL. The discovery of various PARADOXES showed that the naive
theory of classes is contradictory (i.e., sets which are, and at the same time, are
not, members of themselves). Cantor himself made a distinction between
collections (such as the totality of all abstract objects) which are too all-
embracing to be treated as wholes and smaller totalities (such as the set of all
real NUMBERS) which can be regarded as single objects; nowadays the
former are called proper classes, the latter are called sets.
Shannon, C(laude) E(lwood)—American applied mathematician, engineer and
pioneer of COMMUNICATION THEORY.
Sherrington, Sir Charles Scott—British physiologist and philosopher. He did his
epoch-making work on the REFLEX response of the spinal cord, with a
detailed anatomical study of the structure of the nervous system. It has been
said that modern neurophysiology owes not only its basic theories but also its
nomenclature to Sherrington. As a philosopher, he was concerned with the
‘mind-brain’ problem, taking a firmly dualistic line, but imposed on it his
own concept of integrative function by which the action of the nervous
system is coordinated.
simpliciter—Latin, meaning ‘simply’. Without qualification, not just in certain
respects.
simultaneity—To be truly simultaneous events must occur not only at the same
time but also at the same place. For example, an event on Jupiter might be
observed to occur simultaneously with an event on Earth. However, as the
two events occur in different frames of reference, and as the information
cannot travel from one frame to the other faster than the speed of light, the
two events would not, in fact, have occurred simultaneously.
sine qua non—Latin, meaning ‘without which not’; indispensable condition or
qualification.
Sinn—See SENSE AND REFERENCE.
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Skinner, B(urrhus) F(rederic)—American psychologist; the developer of operant-
conditioning techniques. He showed that animal and human behaviour could
be modified by reinforcement and that animals could in this way be trained to
carry out particular tasks to obtain reward, or avoid punishment. These came
to be widely used in the training and studying of animals, and in the
modification of human behaviour in teaching and clinical situations. He
promulgated a philosophy of BEHAVIOURISM.
social anthropology—Also known as cultural anthropology, the study of the
culture and social structure of a community or society including its
psychological factors. It emphasizes the understanding of the total
configuration and interrelationships of cultural traits, complexes, and social
relationships in a particular geographic environment and historical context.
There has been a tendency in recent years to extend its range of study from
non-Western societies to modern Western culture.
sociology—From the Greek socio, ‘to associate’, and logos, ‘knowledge’. The term
is taken to refer to a study of the forms, institutions, functions, and
interrelations of human groups. The term was introduced by Auguste
COMTE to designate a new science, the most comprehensive of all, dealing
with social phenomena. The character he expected of the discipline is
suggested by the term ‘social physics’, his original name for the subject.
Socrates (470?–399 BC).—Athenian philosopher whose debates were chronicled
by PLATO. Extremely influential for his ‘dialectical’ method of debate in
which he led his opponents to analyse their own assumptions and reveal their
inadequacy. He rejected the sceptical and relativistic views of the professional
rhetoricians of the day, urging a return to ABSOLUTE ideals. He was
condemned to death for impiety and corrupting the youth.
solipsism—From the Latin solus, ‘alone’ and ipse, ‘self’. The doctrine that the
individual human mind has no grounds for believing in anything but itself.
The consequence is sometimes drawn that the mind coming to that
conclusion constitutes all there is of reality. The first claim may be termed
‘epistemological solipsism’, while the latter view, often drawn as a reductio ad
absurdum of the first, may be called ‘metaphysical solipsism’.
space-time—A four dimensional order with four coordinates, three of them spatial
(length, width, height) and one temporal; the unity of space and time.
Specification of the coordinates precisely locates any physical magnitude
whatever. The concept was first suggested by Minkowski and soon after
adopted by EINSTEIN. While in classical or Newtonian theory, space-time is
separable in an ABSOLUTE way, in Einstein’s RELATIVITY theory, this is
impossible in an absolute sense but is relative to a choice of a coordinate
system.
Spinoza, Benedict (or Baruch) (1632–77).—Dutch Jewish philosopher. He argued
that nature is a unity, equivalent to a highly abstract and all-pervasive God,
and that its facts are necessary and can be derived by a method of rigourous
‘proof (as in geometry). Believing that humans were part of nature, Spinoza
was a thoroughgoing determinist.
spiritualism—From the Latin spiritus, ‘breath, life, soul, mind, spirit’. This term
has both philosophical and religious meanings. In the first sense, spiritualism
is the doctrine that the ultimate reality in the universe is Spirit (Pneuma, Nous,
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Reason, Logos), akin to human spirit, but pervading the entire universe as its
ground and rational explanation. It is sometimes used to denote the
IDEALISTIC view that only an ABSOLUTE Spirit and FINITE spirits exist,
and that the world of sense is a realm of ideas. Religious spiritualism
emphasizes the direct influence of the Holy Spirit in the sphere of religion,
indicating especially the teaching that God is spirit, and that worship is direct
correspondence of Spirit with spirit.
‘states of affairs’—See ELEMENTARY PROPOSITION.
statistics—Very generally, this is the branch of mathematics, pure and applied,
which deals with collecting, classifying and analysing data. More specifically,
in terms of its various breeds in psychology (i.e. descriptive, inferential),
statistics refers to sets of procedures developed to describe and analyse
particular types of data and enable a researcher to draw various kinds of
conclusions on their basis. While in popular usage, it refers to numbers used
to represent facts or data.
Stevenson, C(harles) L.—American philosopher, known for his work in ETHICS,
and particularly for his views on ethical language. He held that ethical terms
have emotive as well as cognitive meaning and have the power to produce
affective responses in those who hear and use them. What is involved in
ethical discourse, in his view, is the reinforcing or redirecting of attitudes
through the affective power of emotive meaning.
stochastic—Meaning ‘having to do with PROBABILITY’. A stochastic (as opposed
to deterministic) law predicts outcomes as only probable.
structuralism—A method of approach with wide-ranging applications, rather
than a distinct philosophy. Its focus is the irreducible structural units that
constitute the MORPHOLOGY of a system (i.e., phonology of language, the
formal structure of mathematics, the underlying organization of society). The
central ideal of structuralism is that cultural phenomena should be
understood as manifesting unchanging and universal abstract structures or
forms, the meaning of which can be understood only when these forms are
revealed.
sub specie aeternitatis—Latin, ‘under the view or aspect of eternity’. The phrase
used to signify the attempt to see things at once in one thought without any
past or future, as a species of eternity—as God might grasp them. The term is
commonly associated with SPINOZA.
subjective/subjectivism—Any variety of views that claim that something is
subjective—that is, a feature of our minds only, not of the external
‘OBJECTIVE’ world. Ethical subjectivism, for example, holds that our ethical
judgements reflect our own feelings only, not facts about externals.
substance—From the Latin sub ‘under’ and stare ‘to stand’. Generally, the stuff out
of which things are made. The term refers to both the underlying, supporting
substratum of something, as well as the individual subject which remains the
same through time despite changes in characteristics. It may also mean
‘ESSENCE’, as that which something really is, despite the way that it appears.
In terms of LOGIC, substance is defined according to the notions of subject
and predicate; regarded this way S is a substance if S is a subject of predicates,
but cannot be predicated in turn of any other subject. This conception can be
traced back to ARISTOTLE and plays an important part in the philosophy of
LEIBNIZ.
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sufficient reason, principle of—A principle of LEIBNIZ, stating that for every fact
there is a reason why it is so and not otherwise. Thus, reason takes the form of
an A PRIORI proof founded on the nature of the subject and predicate terms
used in stating the fact. Leibniz used the principle freely; to prove, for
example, that there could not be two identical atoms (for there would be no
reason for one to be in one place and the other somewhere else, rather than
vice versa) or that the world did not begin at a moment in time (for there
would be no reason for it to have begun at one moment rather than another).
syllogism—A form of deductive argument, in which one PROPOSITION, the
conclusion, is inferred from two other propositions, the premisses. For
example, ‘All Greeks are rational, all Athenians are Greek, therefore all
Athenians are rational’. A syllogism has only three terms; the subject term and
the predicate term, called ‘minor’ and ‘major’, respectively; the other term,
which occurs only in the premisses, is called the ‘middle’ term. The forms of a
valid syllogism were first studied systematically by ARISTOTLE, and the
theory of the syllogism forms a large part of what is termed ‘traditional
LOGIC.’
symbols—Philosophers often use symbols to abbreviate logical connections, with
letters standing for terms or sentences. For instance, suppose B stands for
property of being bald. If f stands for Fred, Bf stands for the sentence ‘Fred is
bald’. With respect to quantifier LOGIC in which A, the universal quantifier,
signifies ‘all’, the formula (Ax)(Bx) means ‘Everything is bald’; or likewise, in
the case of the existential quantifier E, (Ex)(Bx) means ‘Something is bald’. The
equals sign (=) means ‘is identical with’.
In sentential logic, there are many symbols that refer to logical
connections between sentences, the latter of which are usually abbreviated by
capital letters. Here are some examples: the ampersand (&) and the dot (.) are
commonly used to stand for ‘and’; the horseshoe on its side and the arrow (→)
are used for ‘if…then’; the wedge or vee (V)stands for the inclusive ‘or’; the
tilde or curl (~) stands for ‘not’, where ~P means ‘it is not the case that P’;
another negation symbol is ‘-’; the triple bar (ϵ) or the double arrow (↔)
stands for ‘if and only if’; etc.
synapse—From the Greek for ‘juncture’ or ‘point of contact’. The functional
junction between the axon and the dendrite of two neurons by which nerve
impulses flow. The term was coined by SHERRINGTON in 1906.
syntax—The aspect of language which has to do with grammar or logical form. It
can tell you whether a sentence is formed correctly but cannot tell you what a
correctly formed sentence means, which is the realm of SEMANTICS. The
study of syntax, which is part of the general theory of signs, is called
syntactics.
synthetic—See ANALYTIC/SYNTHETIC.
systems analysis—Generally and collectively, the processes and operations
involved in the designing, implementing and coordinating of the various
components of any complex system. More specifically, it is characterized by
the use of systematic analytical procedures derived from industrial/
organization psychology and assisted by the techniques of computer science
to understand the workings of complex organizations, to identify problems
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and sources of error and to make recommendations for more efficient and
effective structures.
Tarski, Alfred (1902–) Polish-American mathematician and logician. He is the
founder of SEMANTICS.
tautology—In ordinary language a tautology says the same thing twice, but in
LOGIC, it is used to describe a PROPOSITION which is true by virtue of its
form alone. It is sometimes used as a synonym for logical truth, and for some,
every definition is tautological. In terms of truth tables a tautology is a
statement form, all of whose substitution instances are true. While one might
say then that a tautology is necessarily true, some might hold that although
this is true, the truth in question is vacuous. WITTGENSTEIN divided
meaningful propositions into two classes: those which picture facts, and those
which express tautologies.
taxonomy—From the Greek meaning ‘laws of arrangement’. Any systematic set of
principles for classification and arrangement.
teleology—From the Greek telos, ‘end’, and logos, ‘discourse’ or ‘doctrine’. The
study of aims, purposes or functions as well as the doctrine that ends, final
CAUSES or purposes are to be invoked as principles of explanation. In
general, much of traditional philosophy viewed nature and the universe in
terms of teleology. The term itself was introduced in the eighteenth century
by Christian Wolff.
Theaetetus (c. 414–369 BC)—Theaetetus was a Greek mathematician who joined
PLATO in founding the Academy of Athens and whose work was later used
by EUCLID. Plato’s dialogue Theaetetus is devoted to the question of the
definition of knowledge.
thermodynamics, first and second law of—The study of the interrelation between
heat and other forms of energy. The first law of thermodynamics states simply
that heat is a form of energy and that in a closed system the total amount of
energy of all kinds remains constant through time. It is therefore the
application of the principle of CONSERVATION of energy to include heat
energy. The second law deals with the direction in which any chemical or
physical process involving energy takes place: it is impossible to construct a
continuously operating machine which does mechanical work and which
cools a source of heat without producing any other effects. The energy in a
closed system tends to decrease with time, while the ENTROPY tends to
increase.
transcendental—The sort of thought that attempts to discover the (perhaps
universal and necessary) laws of reason, and to deduce consequences from
this about how reality must be understood by any mind. KANT used this
kind of reasoning—the ‘transcendental argument’—to argue in favour of A
PRIORI metaphysical truths.
transparency, referential—See OPACITY AND TRANSPARENCY,
REFERENTIAL.
truth function—A PROPOSITION is a truth function if, and only if, its truth or
falsity is determined by the truth or falsity of its component propositions. For
example, to say that ‘p and q’ is a truth function is to say that, once we can
answer the questions (1) ‘Is p true? (2) ‘Is q true?’ we are in a position to
answer the question ‘Is “p and q” true?’. See FUNCTION.
Turing, Alan Mathison—British mathematician, biologist and philosopher. He
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was the key figure, along with VON NEUMANN, in the conception of
electronic digital computers and ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, as well as the
concepts of mind that arose alongside of these. He developed the Turing
machine, a computer prototype, and queried whether the human mind
functioned in an analogous manner or could be simulated by such a machine.
He claimed that the success of such a simulation of mind could be gauged,
and developed an intelligence test for this purpose. It is known as the ‘Turing
Test’, in which a man’s responses to a series of questions is measured against
those of a computer (responding by teletype) in an attempt to distinguish
which is which. Given that only mental attributes can be questioned in this
behaviouristic model, the computer’s superior mathematical skills may
provide an objection to the test. Turing left the question of whether the
machine was conscious open.
types, theory of—A theory devised by RUSSELL to avoid the logical
PARADOXES and antinomies which arise from self-reference. Deciding that
no class could be a member of itself, he concluded that the class is of a higher
type than its members. In the assertion ‘Socrates is human’, the predicate is
thus of a higher type than the subject. In the simple theory of types, the initial
type level is that of individuals followed by properties of individuals,
properties of properties, etc. While this solved the logical paradoxes, it did
not touch certain semantical paradoxes (i.e. the Grelling paradox which
distinguished between predicates which have the properties they DENOTE
(autological) and those that do not (heterological). The paradoxical question is
whether the predicate ‘heterological’ is autological or heterological). These
led Russell, along with WHITEHEAD, to develop the ramified theory of
types. Here attention is given not only to the elements of the simple theory
but also to the hierarchy of orders—first/second/third…order FUNCTIONS,
each function quantifying over a lower type. A ‘type fallacy’ occurs when this
logical hierarchy is disregarded.
universals—These are ‘abstract’ things—beauty, courage, redness, etc. The
problem of universals is, at core, the question of whether these exist in the
external world—whether they are real things, or merely the result of our
classification (non-existent if there were no minds). Thus, one may be a realist
or anti-realist about universals. PLATO’S theory of forms is an early example
of REALISM in this sense, while ARISTOTLE and the empiricists are
associated with anti-realism. Nominalism is a variety of anti-realism that
claims that such abstractions are merely the result of the way we use
language.
validity—In common usage an argument is valid if it is permitted by the laws of
LOGIC. In fact, the question of the validity of a conclusion is independent of
the question of the truth of the premisses, which bears upon the ‘soundness’
of an argument. In deductive arguments, the conclusion is sound given the
truth of the premisses, while in inductive arguments, the truth of the
premisses only makes the conclusion more probable. Although in both cases,
with the proper logical connections intact, the arguments may be valid. See
DEDUCTION/INDUCTION.
verification principle/criterion of verifiability—Advocated by the logical
positivists, this criterion states that any statement that is not verifiable is
meaningless. For example, since it might be thought impossible to find
evidence for or against the statement that ‘God loves us’, they would deem
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this statement not false (or true), but meaningless. Empiricists in general tend
to share this position. Some logical positivists used this criterion to argue that
statements in METAPHYSICS and ETHICS were meaningless. Further, some
of them, including A.J.SAYER, thought that the verification principle
provided the definitive answer to questions about meaning. This holds that
the meaning of a sentence can only be specified by giving its procedures of
verification.
verificationism—In this position, it is argued that scientific work consists of the
attempt to substantiate (verify) the correctness of a theory by logical and
EMPIRICAL means. It is usually contrasted with falsification, a younger point
of view associated with POPPER, that holds that scientific theories cannot be
proven to be true but only subjected to attempts at REFUTATION. From this
point of view, a scientific theory is accepted, not because it is demonstrably a
correct codification of a class of phenomena, but because it has not yet been
shown to be false.
Vienna Circle—A group of philosophers who met in Vienna and elsewhere
during the 1920 and 1930s. It included SCHLICK, CARNAP, and GÖDEL,
among others, and was deeply influenced by WITTGENSTEIN. Reacting
against the continental ways of thought that surrounded them, these
philosophers produced the groundwork of logical POSITIVISM and proved
very influential on future ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY, especially in Britain
and the United States, where many members moved during the rise of Hitler.
virtual particle—A particle which is created for short periods of time where its
creation would normally violate the CONSERVATION law of energy and
mass. This is due to the uncertainty principle, the consequence of which states
that any measurement of a subatomic system must disturb the system under
investigation. There is a resulting lack of precision, particularly when the
lifetime of a particle is short, and a high degree of uncertainty with respect to
its energy.
vitalism—From the Latin vita, ‘life’. The doctrine that phenomena of life possess a
particular character by virtue of which they are distinct from the physico-
chemical phenomena of the body and from the mind. Vitalists ascribe the
activities of living organisms to the operation of a ‘vital force’ and are
opposed to biological MECHANISTS who assert that living phenomena can
be explained exclusively in physico-chemical terms.
volition—The exercise of the will—the power of deciding, desiring, or wanting.
von Neumann, John—Hungarian-born Princeton professor, one of the
outstanding mathematicians of this century. He contributed to the
development of atomic energy, built one of the first electronic computers,
designed many nuclear devices and contributed to game theory—a branch of
mathematics concerned with PROBABILITY in its approach to the problem of
strategy.
Waisman, Friedrich (1896–1959).—Austrian-born philosopher. Assistant to
SCHLICK in Vienna, he moved to Cambridge to study with WITTGENSTEIN
where he later taught. Beginning as a logical POSITIVIST committed to
mathematical rigour, he came to hold the position that linguistic methods
held more promise in dealing with the problems of philosophy.
Watson, John Broadus (1878–1958).—American psychologist, the founder of
BEHAVIOURISM. Influenced by SKINNER, and in response to the
introspectionist psychology of his day, Watson held that psychology could
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only become a productive science, like other NATURAL SCIENCES, if it was
OBJECTIVE and dealt with the observable. He launched the movement with
his 1913 paper ‘Psychology as the Behaviourist Sees It’, which was followed
by numerous influential articles and books.
wave mechanics—One of the forms of QUANTUM MECHANICS that developed
from the theory that a particle can also be regarded as a wave. Wave
mechanics is based on the SCHRÖDINGER wave equation describing the
wave properties of matter. It relates the energy of a system to a wave function,
and in general it is found that a system (such as an atom or molecule) can only
have certain allowed wave functions and certain allowed energies. In wave
mechanics the QUANTUM conditions arise in a natural way from the basic
postulates as solutions of the wave equation.
weak/strong interaction—The interactions between elementary particles at the
subatomic level which are, along with gravity and ELECTROMAGNETISM,
two of the fundamental FORCES of nature. The weak force produces
radioactive decay and the strong force permanently binds quarks (the three
known basic particles). Weak interaction, compared with strong, is a trillion
times weaker, and when strong interactions take place the weak are
unimportant.
Weierstrass, Karl—One of the greatest German mathematicians of the nineteenth
century; a teacher of Cantor. He worked in mathematical analysis, in the
theory of FUNCTIONS and on ideas that had troubled mathematicians since
ancient times: INFINITY and irrational NUMBERS.
Weltanschauung—German, meaning ‘world-view, perspective of life, conception
of things’.
Weyl, Hermann—German-American scientist and philosopher. Making
contributions to both geometry and RELATIVITY theory, his philosophical
interest was in philosophy of MATHEMATICS and PHILOSOPHY of science.
Whewell, William (1794–1866). English philosopher. Interested in the methods of
the INDUCTIVE sciences, he suggested the importance of ‘colligation’ in the
ordering of scientific data—i.e., finding the conception which allows one to
see the facts as connected—and thereby assimilating induction to the
hypothetico-deductive method.
Whitehead, Alfred North (1861–1947).—English (Cambridge) philosopher and
logician, who developed, with RUSSELL, the first modern systematic
symbolic LOGIC. He is also known for his ‘process’ philosophy in which
change, not SUBSTANCE, is fundamental, and in which purpose is a feature
of the external world.
Wiener, Norbert (1894–1964).—American mathematician and founder of
CYBERNETICS. He joined the faculty of MIT at twenty-five and later, with
Arturo Rosenblueth formed an interdisciplinary group in the late 1930s,
whose meetings were concerned with scientific method and the unification of
science, and from which the concept of cybernetics emerged. The central core
of his theories which were inspired by the development of the computer have
been developed under the label ‘ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE’. This has
taken over the concept of man as ‘machine-like’ and revolutionized the terms
in which perception, learning, thinking and language have been conceived of
since. He wrote a number of articles with Rosenblueth and Julian Bigelow on
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the philosophical aspects of cybernetics, involving VITALISM and
Bergsonian time and was concerned with the social dangers of this viewpoint
in terms of the need for social evolution to accommodate the rapid
technological advances.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig (Josef Johann) (1889–1951).—Austrian-born, he taught at
Cambridge and did much of his work in England, where his thought was
greatly influential on recent philosophical trends. This is especially true of
logical POSITIVISM and ORDINARY LANGUAGE PHILOSOPHY the latter
of which he may be seen as the father. His Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1922)
became of immediate consequence to philosophy and drew him permanently
into the discipline. He engaged many of the technical problems of
contemporary philosophy but is best known for his view of philosophy as
therapy, designed to cure puzzles and confusions resulting from
misunderstandings of the function of parts of language. He set up a system of
linguistic analysis by which any statement must satisfy certain logical
conditions before being admitted as a proper philosophical statement. The
tools of his system are symbols, which enable a thing to be shown in the event
that it cannot, because of the limitations of language, be said.
Logic
algorithm—See DECISION PROCEDURE.
ampliative argument—An argument or inference whose conclusion goes beyond
the information contained in its premisses; an argument in which the
premisses fail to provide conclusive evidence for the conclusion. Ampliative
arguments include inductive (or non-monotonic) inferences as well as
inferences to the best explanation. They may be either acceptable or
unacceptable depending upon their strength or weakness.
antinomy—Any paradoxical statement such that its truth leads to a contradiction
and the truth of its denial leads to a contradiction; a paradox.
argument—The inference of a conclusion from premisses; a set of sentences (or
propositions) supporting or purporting to justify such an inference.
axiomatic system—A logistic system or logical calculus which includes a set of
axioms as part of its primitive basis; to be contrasted with a natural deduction
system.
belief dynamics—The standard name for theories of belief revision, which are
designed in such a way as to model changes in one’s belief set which come
about both as a result of the acceptance of new beliefs and the revision of old
beliefs.
bivalence—The property of a logic in which each well-formed formula has one of
exactly two possible truth values: truth and falsehood.
Boolean algebra—A formal system introduced by George Boole which models
logical relations algebraically by defining the operations, ʝ(or ×, representing
intersection), ʜ(or +, representing union) and (or -, representing
complementation) over a set of elements representing propositions.
bound variable—A variable which falls within the scope of a quantifier; a
variable, x, to which a quantifier, such as or ∃ , ∀ applies.
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calculus—Another name for a logistic system.
Cantor’s theorem—The theorem, proved by Georg Cantor in 1891, that the
cardinality of the set of all subsets of a given set (the power set of that set) is
always greater than that of the set itself. Alternatively, the theorem that the set
of real numbers is non-denumerable (or, equivalently, that the cardinality of
the set of real numbers is greater than that of the set of natural numbers).
Cantor proved both versions of the theorem by means of a diagonal
argument.
cardinality—The property of a set associated with the cardinal (or counting)
number that measures the number of its members.
category theory—The mathematical study of structures and structure-preserving
mappings (or morphisms); the study of mathematical categories, which are
defined as sets of objects together with associated sets of morphisms (or
arrows) which satisfy certain conditions.
Church’s theorem—The metatheorem, proved by Alonzo Church in 1936, that
there is no effective decision procedure for determining whether an arbitrary
well-formed formula of first-order logic is a theorem. Equivalently, the
theorem that the valid formulas of the predicate calculus do not form a
general recursive set. Also called the Church-Turing theorem.
Church’s thesis—The thesis, suggested by Alonzo Church, that every effectively
calculable function (or equivalently, every decidable predicate) is general
recursive. Also called the Church-Turing thesis.
classical logic—Any logic for which bivalence holds; alternatively, the
propositional and predicate logics originally developed by Gottlob Frege and
modified over the years by his successors.
closed sentence—A well-formed formula or sentence in which all variables are
bound; to be compared with an open sentence.
combinatory logic—A branch of formal logic which contains functions capable of
playing the role of variables in ordinary logic; hence, a branch of logic in
which variables are eliminated.
compactness theorem—The metatheorem, proved by Kurt Gödel in 1930, stating
that in first-order logic any collection of well-formed formulas of a given
language has a model if every finite subset of the collection has a model.
completeness—The property of a logistic system, introduced by E.L.Post, in
which for any well-formed formula, either that formula is a theorem of the
system or, if added to the system as an axiom, the resulting system would be
inconsistent. Alternatively (but not equivalently), the property of a logistic
system, introduced by Kurt Gödel, in which all valid well-formed formulas
expressible in the system are theorems of the system. In the former sense, the
classical propositional calculus but not the pure first-order predicate calculus
is complete; in the latter sense, both are complete.
computability—Intuitively, the property of being able to compute a function. A
computable function is thus any function for which there exists an effective,
finite, mechanical procedure (or algorithm) for calculating a solution. One
precise notion of effective computability is that given by the notion of a Turing
machine; another is that of a general recursive function.
conclusion—That which is inferred from or purportedly justified by the premisses
of an argument.
confirmation theory—The theory of the degree to which evidence supports (or
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confirms) a given hypothesis; the theory of rational degrees of confidence that
a cognitive agent should have in favour of a hypothesis, given some body of
evidence.
connective—A symbol used to join one or more prepositional constants or forms.
The result is a new constant or form. Standard connectives include symbols
representing negation (~), conjunction (&), (inclusive) disjunction (ٚ),
material implication (→), and material equivalence (↔).
consistency—The property of a set of statements or propositions or of a logistic
system in which no contradiction (the joint assertion of a proposition and its
denial) can be derived. Alternatively (but not equivalently), the property,
introduced by Alfred Tarski, of a logistic system that not every well-formed
formula is a theorem. Alternatively (but not equivalently), the property,
introduced by E.L.Post, of a logistic system that no well-formed formula
consisting of only a prepositional variable is a theorem. Alternatively (but not
equivalently), the property of a logistic system of having a model. This last is
called the semantic definition of consistency.
constructivism—The view that satisfactory proofs (and definitions) refer only to
entities which can be successfully constructed or discovered. Thus,
constructive proofs, unlike indirect proofs or proofs by reductio ad absurdum,
are ones which allow us to find examples, or to find algorithms for finding
examples, of each set of objects which purportedly have some given
property, P.
continuum hypothesis—The hypothesis, suggested by Georg Cantor, that there is
no set with cardinality greater than that of the natural numbers but less than
that of the power set of the natural numbers. When generalized, the
hypothesis states that there is no set with cardinality greater than a given
infinite set but less than that of the power set of that set.
Cook’s theorem—The theorem, proved by Stephen Cook in 1971, that the problem
of satisfiability is at least as difficult to solve as is any NP-complete problem.
counterfactual—A conditional sentence in which the antecedent is false.
decision problem—The problem of finding an effective, finite, mechanical
decision procedure (or algorithm) for arriving at an answer to a given
question. Typically, the most common decision problem with regard to
logistic systems is the problem of determining whether an arbitrary, well-
formed formula of the system is a theorem of the system. A positive solution
to a decision problem is a proof that an effective decision procedure exists. A
negative solution to a decision problem is a proof that an effective decision
procedure does not exist. An example of a positive solution is the proof that
truth tables provide an effective decision procedure for the propositional
calculus. An example of a negative solution is Church’s theorem for the
predicate calculus.
decision procedure—A procedure for coming to a decision with regard to a given
question. The procedure is said to be effective, or to be an algorithm, provided
that it results in the correct answer following a finite number of mechanical steps.
decision theory—The theory of selection under various conditions of risk and
uncertainty; the theory of rational choice, given that each option has
associated with it an expected probability distribution of outcomes, gains and
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losses. Decision theory, together with game theory, is often called the theory
of practical rationality.
deducibility—The relation, symbolized ٛ and contrasted with entailment, that
holds between a statement (or proposition), C, and a set of statements (or
propositions), P, provided that C is provable from P.
deduction—An argument or inference in which the conclusion, C, is provable
from the premisses, P. Alternatively, but less commonly, an argument or
inference in which the premisses provide conclusive evidence for the
conclusion; a valid argument or entailment.
deduction theorem—The metatheorem that states that, in a given logistic system,
if s1, s2,…, snٛsn+1, then s1, s2,…, sn-1ٛsn→sn+1.
deductive logic—The formal study of deductions or of arguments or inferences in
which the premisses provide conclusive evidence for the conclusion.
default logic—A form of nonmonotonic logic which permits the acceptance or
rejection of certain types of default propositions simply in the absence of
information to the contrary.
denumerable—A denumerable set is any set whose cardinality is equal to that of
the natural numbers, the smallest of infinite sets. A non-denumerable set is
one whose cardinality is greater than that of the natural numbers; to be
contrasted with an enumerable set.
deontic logic—Any logic emphasizing inferential relations and entailments which
result from deontic properties of sentences, such as obligation and
permission, and obtained from a classical logic, such as the propositional
calculus or the predicate calculus, by the addition of axioms and rules of
inference governing operators such as O and P in ‘Op’ (‘it ought to be the case
that p’) and ‘Pp’ (‘it is permissible that p’).
detachment—The rule of inference (also called modus ponens) that, given well-
formed formulas of the form p and p→q, one can infer a well-formed formula
of the form q.
diagonal argument—An argument introduced by Georg Cantor to show that
certain sets have distinct cardinalities; a method or procedure for constructing
objects on the basis of other objects in such a way that the new objects are
guaranteed to differ from the old. When generalized, this method becomes
one of the most powerful tools in metamathematics.
entailment—The relation, symbolized and contrasted with deducibility, that
holds between a statement (or proposition), C, and a set of statements (or
propositions), P, provided that C follows from P. Alternatively, an argument
or inference in which the conclusion, C, follows from the premisses, P, or in
which the premisses provide conclusive evidence for the conclusion. In this
sense, entailment is often identified with validity, the property of being
logically impossible that the premisses should be true while at the same time
the conclusion be false. Others suggest it be identified with a stronger relation
in order to avoid the paradoxes of strict implication.
enumerable—An enumerable set is any set whose cardinality is equal to that of
some (finite) natural number or to the cardinality of the set of natural
numbers as a whole. A synonym of ‘countable’; to be contrasted with a
denumerable set.
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epistemic logic—Any logic emphasizing inferential relations and entailments
which result from epistemic properties of sentences and obtained from a
classical logic, such as the propositional calculus or the predicate calculus, by
the addition of axioms and/or rules of inference governing operators such as
K and B in ‘Kp’ (‘it is known that p’) and ‘Bp’ (‘it is believed that p’).
erotetic logic—Any logic emphasizing inferential relations and entailments
pertaining to questions and answers.
existential quantifier—A symbol such as ‘∃‘which is used in combination wit a
variable to represent the notion ‘there exists’. For example, under the
appropriate interpretation ‘(∃x=x)’ could be used to symbolize ‘There exists
an x, such that x is identical with itself’ or, more informally, ‘Something is
identical with itself’.
fallacy—An argument which although neither valid nor inductively strong is
nevertheless persuasive; any error in reasoning.
finitary method (finitism)—A method of metamathematical research adhered to
by David Hilbert and his followers which emphasizes the use of only finite,
well-defined and constructible objects. Like constructivism, finitism holds
that we cannot assert the existence of a mathematical object unless we can also
indicate how to go about constructing it. Unlike constructivism, it also
requires that one should never refer to completed infinite totalities.
finitism—See FINITARY METHOD.
first-order language—A language whose quantifiers and functions are allowed to
range over only individuals. In contrast, the quantifiers and functions of
higher-order languages may range over properties and functions as well as
individuals.
first-order logic—The logic of valid inferences carried out in first-order
languages; also called first-order predicate (or functional) logic. See predicate
logic.
formal language—A collection of well-formed formulas together with an
interpretation.
formal logic—The study of arguments whose validity or inductive strength
depends exclusively or primarily upon the form or structure, rather than the
material content, of their component statements or propositions.
formal system—Another name for a logical calculus.
formalism—A programme of research into the foundations of mathematics
initiated by David Hilbert and using the finitary method.
formation rule—Any rule of a logistic system governing which combinations of
(primitive) symbols constitute well-formed formulas.
formula—Any sequence of primitive symbols; sometimes used as a synonym for
well-formed formula.
free logic—Any logic in which it is not assumed that names successfully refer; a
logic without existence assumptions.
free variable—A variable which is not bound by a quantifier.
function—A many-one correspondence. Also called a map or mapping, a function
is a relation which associates members, x, of one set, X, with some unique
member, y, of another set, Y. We write f(x)=y, or f: X→Y, and name X the
domain and Y the range of the function f.
functional logic—Another name for predicate logic.
future contingents, problem of—The problem, first raised by Aristotle but
popularized by Jan £ukasiewicz, of whether contingent statements
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concerning the future have truth-values prior to the time to which they
refer.
fuzzy logic—An extension of logic which attempts to deal with imprecise
information such as information conveyed through vague predicates or
information associated with so-called fuzzy sets, sets in which membership is
a matter of degree.
game theory—The mathematical theory of selection by two or more agents (or
players) when the outcome is a function, not just of one’s own choice or
strategy, but the choices or strategies of other agents as well. Game theory,
together with decision theory, is often called the theory of practical rationality.
general recursive function—A type of recursive function definable in terms of
primitive recursive functions together with minimization.
Gentzen’s consistency proof—The 1936 proof by Gerhard Gentzen, using
transfinite induction up to the ordinal ε0, that classical pure number theory is
consistent.
Gödel numbering—The systematic assignment of natural numbers to the
components and formulas of a formal system in such a way that, by studying
the properties and relations of the correlated numbers, one is able to infer
information about the syntax of the underlying formal system.
Gödel’s completeness theorem—The metatheorem, proved by Kurt Gödel in
1930, that every valid well-formed formula of (pure) first-order predicate
logic is a theorem of that system.
Gödel’s incompleteness theorems—The two 1931 theorems of Kurt Gödel
relating to the incompleteness of systems of elementary number theory. The
first theorem states that any ω-consistent system adequate to express
elementary number theory is incomplete in the sense that there is a valid well-
formed formula of the system that is not provable within the system. (In 1936
this theorem was extended by J.B.Rosser to apply to any consistent system.)
The second theorem states that no consistent system adequate to express
elementary number theory can contain a proof of a sentence which states the
system’s own consistency.
halting problem—The problem of discovering an effective procedure for
determining whether a computational device (such as a Turing machine) will
ever halt, given arbitrary input.
higher-order language—A language whose quantifiers and functions are allowed
to range over properties and functions as well as individuals.
higher-order logic—The logic of valid inferences carried out in higher-order
languages.
imperative logic—Any logic emphasizing inferential relations and entailments
which result from imperatives.
induction—An ampliative argument from empirical premisses to an empirical
conclusion. For example, in induction by simple enumeration, given
observed objects a, b and c of some kind, G, if it turns out that a, b, and c also all
have property F, then one might conclude that all future observed Gs will be F,
or perhaps that all Gs are F. Inductions may be either acceptable or
unacceptable depending upon their inductive strength or weakness.
inductive logic—The formal study of inductions, of ampliative arguments or
inferences from empirical premisses to empirical conclusions, in which the
premisses fail to provide conclusive evidence for the conclusion.
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inductive strength—The degree of support a non-conclusive argument’s
premisses give to its conclusion. In cases where the conclusion is likely to be
true given the premisses, the argument is said to be inductively strong. In
cases where the conclusion is not likely to be true given the premisses, the
argument is said to be inductively weak.
inference rule—Also known as a transformation rule, any justification of a well-
formed formula within a logistic system of the form, ‘Given well-formed
formulas of the form s1,…sn, infer a well-formed formula of the form sm’.
informal logic—The study of arguments whose validity or inductive strength
depends exclusively or primarily upon the material content, rather than the
form or structure, of their component statements or propositions.
interpretation—The meanings of, or alternatively a method of assigning
meanings to, a set of well-formed formulas or to a formal system. Thus, given
a set, S, of well-formed formulas, an interpretation consists of a non-empty set
(or domain), together with a function which (i) assigns to each individual
constant found in members of S an element of the domain; (ii) assigns to each
n-place predicate found in members of S an n-place relation of the domain;
(iii) assigns to each n-place function-name found in members of S a function
whose arguments are n-tuples of elements of the domain and whose values
are also elements of the domain; and (iv) assigns to each sentence letter a truth
value. Logical constants, such as those representing truth functions and
quantifiers, are assigned standard meanings using rules (such as truth tables)
which specify how well-formed formulas containing them are to be
evaluated.
interrogative logic—Another name for erotetic logic.
intuitionism—A program of research into the foundations of mathematics
initiated by L.E.J.Brouwer; a species of constructivism.
intuitionistic logic—A logic which formalizes the ‘intuitionistic’ view that the
subject matter of mathematics consists of mental constructions made by
mathematicians. Classical proofs (such as those which rely upon indirect
proof or reductio ad absurdum arguments) are therefore not admissible since
they do not contain the appropriate constructions. In intuitionistic logic,
the sentence ‘p ¬p’ is not a theorem and the inferences from ¬¬p to p and
from¬ (∀x)Fx to (∃x) ¬Fx are not allowed.
lambda calculus A logic governing the manipulation of functions, which gains its
name from the notation used to name functions. Terms such as ‘f(x)’ or the
‘successor of y’ are used to refer to objects obtained from x or y by the appropriate
functions. To refer to the functions themselves, Alonzo Church introduced the
notation which yields, respectively, and ‘(λx) (f(x))’ and ‘(λx) (successor of y)’.
logic—The study of correct inference. Alternatively, the science of validity and of
inductive strength, and of all formal structures and informal properties
relating to correct inference. The term is also used as a synonym for ‘logical
calculus’.
logical calculus—Any systematic treatment of logical inference in which a
primitive basis—consisting of a formal language, including a vocabulary of
primitive elements and a set of formation rules (or grammar), and a logic,
including a (possibly empty) set of axioms and a set of transformation rules—is
explicitly stated in the system’s metalanguage. Also called a formal system or a
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GLOSSARY
logistic system. The two most important classical logical calculi are the
prepositional (or sentential) calculus and the predicate (or functional) calculus.
logical constant—A symbol used to represent topic-neutral expressions which are
relevant to a sentence’s logical form. Standard logical constants include
symbols used to represent truth-functions such as negation (~), conjunction
(&), (inclusive) disjunction (ٚ), material implication (→), and material
equivalence (↔), the universal and existential quantifiers (∀ and ∃), the
identity relation (=), and scope indicators (such as ‘(’and‘)’).
logical form—The structure of a sentence or argument relevant to that sentence or
argument’s logical relations. The logical form of an expression is typically
obtained by making explicit the expression’s logical constants and by
substituting free variables for its non-logical constants. Logical form is
contrasted with the material content (or subject matter) of the non-logical
constants for which the free variables are substituted.
logical paradox—A paradox not involving semantic notions such as reference or
truth; to be contrasted with a semantic paradox.
logicism—The doctrine, variously advanced by Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell,
Alfred North Whitehead and others, that (some or all branches of)
mathematics can reduced to logic. Specifically, it is the view that the concepts
of (some or all branches of) mathematics can be defined in terms of purely
logical concepts and that the theorems of (these same branches of)
mathematics can in turn be deduced from purely logical axioms.
logistic system—Another name for a logical calculus.
Löwenheim-Skolem theorems—Any of a series of metatheorems relating to
Leopold Löwenheim’s 1915 theorem, that if there is an interpretation in which
a well-formed formula is true, then there is an interpretation in which the
formula is true and whose domain is enumerable, and to Thoralf Skolem’s
1920 extension of this theorem.
many-valued logic—Any logic, such as that developed by Jan £ukasiewicz, which
countenances more than the two possible classical truth values: truth and falsity.
material content—The subject matter of a sentence or argument, in contrast to the
sentence or argument’s logical form.
material implication—The truth function, normally written p → q or pʛq, which
is false if and only if p (its antecedent) is true but q (its consequent) is false.
material implication, paradoxes of—Any of a number of unintuitive (but, strictly
speaking, non-contradictory) results to the effect that whenever the
antecedent is false or the consequent is true in a material implication, the
resulting implication will be true, regardless of its content; to be contrasted
with the paradoxes of strict implication.
mathematical logic—Another name for formal logic, particularly for those
branches of formal logic which rely upon mathematical tools and concepts, or
which are suitable for expressing mathematical theories.
mereology—A logic emphasizing inferential relations and entailments which
result from the relationship of whole and part.
metalanguage—A language used to talk about a (usually separate) language
called an object language.
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GLOSSARY
metalogic—A logical theory whose subject matter is a particular logical calculus
or logistic system; the study of logical calculi from the point of view of a
separate metalanguage.
metamathematics—The study of logistic systems used to model mathematical
theories and in which formulas of the theory (such as axioms, theorems and
proofs) are themselves assumed to be mathematical objects. Sometimes the
term is restricted to proof theory, or to proof theory using only finitary
methods.
metatheorem—A theorem proved in a metalanguage; a theorem of metalogic or
metamathematics.
metatheory—A theory in a metalanguage concerning a separate theory or logistic
system.
modal logic—Any logic emphasizing inferential relations and entailments
which result from alethic modalities such as necessity, possibility and
impossibility, and obtained from a classical logic, such as the prepositional
calculus or the predicate calculus, by the addition of axioms and rules of
inference governing operators such as ᮀ and ᭛ in ‘ᮀp’ (‘it is necessary that
p’) and ‘᭛p’ (‘it is possible that p’).
model—An interpretation of a set of sentences (or of a logistic system) under
which all sentences (or theorems) turn out to be true.
model theory—The study of interpretations of formal systems; the study of
relations of (semantic) consequence between sentences (and sets of sentences)
within an interpreted logistic system.
modus ponens—Another name for the rule of detachment.
multi-valued logic—A synonym for many-valued logic.
natural deduction system—A logistic system or logical calculus which avoids the
use of axioms, relying instead upon a sufficiently powerful set of rules of
inference; to be contrasted with an axiomatic system.
non-monotonic logic—The formal study of ampliative reasoning; a type of logic
which is sensitive to changing evidence and so allows for the revision or
overturning of previously proved theorems.
NP-complete—An abbreviation for ‘non-deterministic, polynomial-time-
complete’, the property of the most difficult class of problems for which there
is no polynomial time solution but whose solutions, if they exist, are
checkable within polynomial time.
object language—A language referred to by a metalanguage. Alternatively, a
language used to talk about (usually non-linguistic) objects.
ω completeness—The property of a formal system in which, if it has as theorems
that a given property, P, holds of all individual natural numbers, then it also
has as a theorem that P holds of all numbers.
ω consistency—The property of a formal system in which, if it has as theorems
that a given property, P, holds of all individual natural numbers, then it fails
to have as a theorem that P fails to hold of all numbers.
open sentence—A formula or sentence in which not all variables are bound.
Alternatively, a predicate; to be contrasted with a closed sentence.
paraconsistent logic—Any logical calculus which is inconsistent in the sense that
a contradiction (the joint assertion of a proposition and its denial) can be
derived; but consistent in the sense (introduced by Alfred Tarski) that not
every well-formed formula is a theorem.
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GLOSSARY
paradox—The existence of apparently conclusive arguments in favour of
contradictory propositions. Equivalently, the existence of apparently
conclusive arguments both in favour of accepting, and in favour of rejecting,
the same proposition. The distinction between logical paradoxes (such as
Russell’s paradox) and semantic paradoxes (such as the liar paradox) is due to
Guiseppe Peano and Frank Ramsey.
Peano’s postulates—A set of postulates introduced by Richard Dedekind and
popularized by Guiseppe Peano which defines the set of natural numbers as a
series of successors to the number zero.
pleonotetic logic—A synonym for plurality logic.
plurality logic—Any logic emphasizing inferential relations and entailments
pertaining to relations of quantity and using plurality quantifiers such as
most and few.
plurative logic—A synonym for plurality logic.
Polish notation—A logical notation devised by Jan £ukasiewicz which avoids the
need for scope indicators (such as parentheses) in formal languages by using
an unambiguous system of ordering. Thus, letting N represent negation, K
represent conjunction, A represent disjunction (or alternation), R represent
exclusive disjunction, C represent material implication, E represent material
equivalence, L represent necessity, and M represent possibility, sentences such
as ~ (p→ (p & q)) and ᮀ(p→p) can be represented as NCpKpq and LCpp,
respectively.
predicate—An expression representing a condition or relation and which, when
connected with one or more referring terms, forms a sentence. The resulting
sentence is taken to be true when the predicate expresses a condition or
relation that is satisfied by the referred-to entities, and false otherwise.
predicate logic—A logical calculus which analyses the relations between
individuals and predicates within propositions (or statements), in additional
to the truth-functional relations between propositions (or statements) that are
analyzed within propositional logic. Each such system is based upon a set of
individual and predicate (or functional) constants, individual (and sometime
predicate) variables, and quantifiers (such as ∃ and ∀) which range over
(some of) these variables, as well as the standard constants and connectives of
the propositional calculus.
preference logic—Any logic emphasizing inferential relations and entailments
which result from preferences.
premiss—One of a set of sentences (or propositions) which support or purport to
justify a conclusion.
primitive basis—A set of primitive symbols, formation rules, axioms and
inference rules (transformation rules) used to characterize a logicist system.
primitive recursive function—A type of recursive function definable by recursion
and substitution from a set of fundamental functions including the constant
functions, the projection (or identity) functions, and the successor function.
primitive symbols—A set of undefined symbols, including constants, variables,
connectives and operators, used as the basic vocabulary of a language.
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GLOSSARY
probability—A measure of the acceptability of a statement or proposition; a
measure of likelihood.
probability theory—A mathematical theory of the acceptability of a statement or
proposition, or of likelihood, axiomatized by Andrej Kolmogorov in 1933 as a
non-negative real-value additive set function with a maximum value of unity.
proof—Any finite list of well-formed formulas in a logistic system, each of which
is either an axiom of the system or results from the previous members of the
list together with the inference rules of the system. The final formula in the list
is said to be a theorem of the system.
proof theory—The study of the syntax of formal systems; the study of relations of
(syntactic) deducibility between formulas (and sets of formulas) within a
logistic system. Sometimes the term is restricted to the study of formal
systems using only the finitary methods suggested by David Hilbert.
propositional function—A notion introduced by Gottlob Frege as a formal
equivalent to that of a property; a function having as its domain a set of
referring terms (such as individual constants) and as its range a set of
propositions or truth values.
propositional logic—A logical calculus which analyses the truth-functional
relations between propositions (or statements). Each such system is based
upon a set of propositional (or sentential) constants and connectives (or
operators) which are combined in various ways to produce sentences of
greater complexity. Standard connectives include those representing negation
(~), conjunction (&), (inclusive) disjunction (ٚ), material implication (→), and
material equivalence (↔).
quantification theory—Another name for predicate logic.
quantifier—An operator, such as the existential or universal quantifiers, ∃ and ∀ ,
first introduced by Gottlob Frege to indicate what was traditionally called the
quantity of a proposition, namely, whether it was universal or particular.
quantum logic—A logic in which the law of distributivity fails; any logic designed
to take account of the unusual entailment relations between propositions in
theories of contemporary quantum physics.
recursion theory—The theory of recursive functions.
recursive function—Any of a set of functions which are said to be either primitive
recursive or general recursive, and which are constructed from a set of
fundamental functions by a series of fixed procedures. Specifically, a function
is primitive recursive if it is definable by recursion and substitution from a set
of fundamental functions including the constant functions, the projection (or
identity) functions, and the successor function. A function is general recursive
(or simply recursive) if it is definable in terms of the primitive recursive
functions together with minimization.
recursive procedure—A procedure which is applied iteratively in such a way that
each non-initial application is applied to the result of the previous
application.
recursive set—Any set such that both it and its complement can be enumerated by
recursive functions.
relevance logic—Any logic emphasizing inferential relations and entailments
which involve connections of relevance between premisses and conclusions,
rather than simple classical derivability conditions; a type of paraconsistent
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GLOSSARY
logic involving an implication relation stronger than strict implication and
designed to avoid the paradoxes of implication and of strict implication.
Russell’s paradox—The most famous of the logical or set-theoretical paradoxes.
The paradox comes from considering the set of all sets which are not members
of themselves, since this set appears to be a member of itself if and only if it is
not a member of itself. Discovered by Russell in 1901, the paradox prompted
much work in logic and set theory during the early part of this century.
satisfiability—The property of an open sentence such that, given some non-
empty domain of individuals, there is a possible assignment of individuals to
the formula’s free variables such that the resulting formula is true.
Alternatively, the property of any set of sentences which can be given an
interpretation, relative to a domain, such that all of the sentences turn out to
be true. Thus, the problem of satisfiability is the problem, given an arbitrary
set of sentences, of determining whether the set is satisfiable.
scope (of a quantifier)—The part of an expression to which a quantifier, such as ∃
or ∀, applies. Thus, a variable, x, falls within the scope of a quantifier
provided that the quantifier applies to it.
second-order language—The most elementary of higher-order languages, in
which quantifiers and functions are allowed to range over properties and
functions of individuals, as well as individuals.
second-order logic—The logic of valid inferences carried out in second-order
languages; the most elementary of higher-order logics.
semantic paradox—A paradox involving semantic notions such as reference or
truth; to be contrasted with a logical paradox.
semantics—The meanings of the symbols of a formal system and the study of their
properties and relations, including the theory of reference (or denotation) and
the theory of meaning (or connotation).
sentential logic—Another name for prepositional logic.
set—Intuitively, any collection of well-defined, distinct objects. The objects which
determine a set are called the elements or members of the set. The symbol ʦ is
regularly used to denote the relation of membership or elementhood. Thus ‘a
ʦ A’ is read ‘a is an element (or member) of A’ or ‘a belongs to A’. Two sets are
identical if and only if they contain exactly the same elements.
set theory—The systematic study of sets, their properties and relations. Motivated
both by Georg Cantor’s discovery of the set-theoretic hierarchy and by the
paradoxes of naive set theory which accompanied it, the first standard
axiomatization, Z, of the theory was provided by Ernst Zermelo in 1908.
Skolem-Löwenheim theorems—Another name for the Löwenheim-Skolem
theorems.
Skolem’s paradox—The unintuitive (but ultimately non-contradictory) result that
systems for which Cantor’s theorem is provable, and hence which must
contain non-denumerable sets, nevertheless must be satisfiable, because of
the Löwenheim-Skolem theorems, in an enumerably infinite domain.
soundness—The property of a logistic system in which all theorems of the system
are valid well-formed formulas.
strict implication—A relation between two formulas, p and q, such that it is not
possible that both p and ~q. In such cases p is said to strictly imply q.
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GLOSSARY
strict implication, paradoxes of—The unintuitive (but, strictly speaking, non-
contradictory) results that a necessary proposition is strictly implied by any
proposition and that an impossible proposition strictly implies all
propositions, regardless of their content; to be contrasted with the paradoxes
of material implication.
substitution—The rule of inference that, given one well-formed formula, one can
infer a second well-formed formula from the first by uniformly replacing
every variable of a given kind by some distinct variable.
successor—For a given member of an ordering, the member of the ordering which
next follows.
symbolic logic—Another name for formal logic.
syntax—The symbols of a formal system and the study of their properties and
relations, including the distinction between well-formed and ill-formed
formulas.
tautology—Any compound sentence or formula of the prepositional calculus
which, because of its logical structure, is true regardless of the truth values of
its constituent sentences.
temporal logic—Any logic which is sensitive to the tense of sentences and to the
changing truth values of sentences over time; a logic emphasizing inferential
relations and entailments which result from properties of tensed sentences.
tense logic—Another name for temporal logic.
theorem—Any well-formed formula of a logistic system which is provable within
the system.
theory—Any set of well-formed formulas. Alternatively, a set of well-formed
formulas closed under logical entailment.
transformation rule—Another name for an inference rule.
truth function—Any function whose arguments and values are truth values.
truth table—A matrix which lists the truth value of a compound proposition for
all possible assignments of truth values to its constituent propositions.
truth value—In classical logic, the two abstract entities which serve as the
reference of true and false sentences, respectively, truth and falsehood. In
many-valued logics, any values which play similar roles.
Turing-computable—The property of any function capable of being computed by
a Turing machine. The set of Turing-computable functions turns out to be
identical to the set of general recursive functions. See Church’s thesis.
Turing machine—A theoretical machine introduced by Alan Turing in order to
make precise the idea of (effective) computability. Intuitively, the machine can
be thought of as a computer which manipulates information contained on a
linear tape (which is infinite in both directions) according to a series of
instructions. More formally, the machine can be thought of as a set of ordered
quintuples, qi, si, sj, Ii, qj, where qi is the current state of the machine, si is the
symbol currently being read on the tape, sj, is the symbol with which the
machine replaces Si, Ii is an instruction to move the tape one unit to the right,
to the left, or to remain where it is, and qj is the machine’s next state.
types, theory of—A theory of the correct structure of an ideal language, and
introduced by Bertrand Russell as a means of blocking paradoxes such as the
paradox of the set of all sets which are not members of themselves (Russell’s
paradox). Russell’s idea was that by ordering the objects (and eventually
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GLOSSARY
predicates) of a language or theory into a hierarchy (beginning with
individuals at the lowest level, sets of individuals at the next lowest level,
etc.), one could avoid reference being made to sets such as the set of all sets,
since there would be no level at which such a set appeared.
universal quantifier—A symbol such as ∀ which is used in combination with a
variable to represent the notion ‘for all’. For example, under the appropriate
interpretation ‘(∀x) (x=x)’ could be used to symbolize ‘For all x, x is identical
with itself or, more informally, ‘Everything is identical with itself’.
validity—The property of any inference such that the joint assertion of its
premisses and denial of its conclusion results in a contradiction. Alternatively,
the property of any well-formed formula which is true under all
interpretations; that is, given any non-empty domain, every possible
assignment of values to its free variables results in a true sentence.
well-formed formula—Any formula of a logistic system which is grammatically
correct; a sentence.
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Index
a fortiori 377
a priori, synthetic 133, 258; analytic
133
a priori/a posteriori 321, 378
ab initio 376
Abel, N. 12
absolute 206, 376; space and/or time
217–18, 231, 376
absolutist/relativist debate 217–18,
221, 376
abstract/mathematical entities 147
abstraction 135; principle 138, 143
Ackermann, W. 19, 84
act/action 266–84, 278, 304, 316, 320,
355–6, 358, 360; and reaction 318;
automatic 337–9, 340, 342, 347;
bodily 334; complex 353;
conscious/ unconscious 341;
effect of cause 333; explaining
360; grounds of 278; hidden
causes of 354; intentional 356; not
mechanical 334; plan 353;
purposive 339; reflexive 319, 323,
331–2, 334, 338–9, 344;
unconscious 340; voluntary/
involuntary 318–19, 335–8, 341–2,
346–8, 366,
see also volition; willed 338, 356
actual infinite 19
ad hoc 377
adaptation 300, 305–8, 319, 334, 344;
neurological 349
adaptive pattern formation see
adaptation
adjustment see adaptation
aesthetics 184, 377
affect 333
agent 320, 339, 353, 355–62, 365, 377;
rational 92
AI see artificial intelligence
Aiken, H. 293
alchemy 247–8, 377
algebra 377
algorithm 255, 377; see also decision
procedure
analysis 200–3, 216–17;
arithmetization of 55; by
synthesis 302–3; inferential-
statistical 283; linguistic 148;
logical 129, 133, 148; modal 91;
of variance (ANOVA) 279–81,
377; path 279, 412; philosophical
215; probabilistic 277;
semantical 185; statistical 279;
systems 425
analytic/synthetic 133, 258, 377–8;
distinction attacked 89, 107
analyticity/syntheticity 64, 68
anatomy 334
ancients 316
Anderson, A.R. 33
animal 223, 316–35, 341, 344, 350,
352–3, 365; decerebrated 339,
342, 346; is machine 317–18;
spirits 333–4
animal heat debate 322–33, 349
ANOVA see analysis, of variance
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INDEX
anthropometry 326, 378
anti-dualism 327
anti-Platonism 102
anti-psychologism 142, 145–8
anti-realism see realism
anti-science 246
antinomies 16, 18–19, 22, 430
Arbib, M.A. 330
Archimedes 378
Archimedes’ axiom 378
argument 2, 430; ampliative 430
Aristotelian syllogistics 129
Aristotle 10, 34, 55, 124, 126,
129–30, 171, 214, 317, 378–9
arithmetic, asymmetry with
geometry 53–4, 56–7, 64, 70–1;
creation of mind 76; finitary 104;
first-order Peano 84; knowledge
of 78; laws of 58, 63; necessary
105–6; objectivity of 70; Peano’s
413; philosophy of 89; primitive
recursive (PRA) 84–5; reducing to
logic 130; second-order Peano 85;
synthetic a priori 72; synthetic
versus analytic onception of 59;
translatable into second-order
logic 90; see also number
art 137
artificial intelligence 293–4, 311–12,
321, 353–4, 379
Ashby’s law 299, 307
Ashby, W.R. 300–1, 309, 311–12
Asimov, I. 243–4
assertion see proposition
association 51, 336–7, 350
associationism 347; evolutionary 345
astrology 247–8
astronomy 225
attribution theory 320, 379
Austin, J.L. 379
autobiography 316
automaton/automaton theory 292,
318–20, 323, 330, 345, 365, 379;
distinction between mechanical
and animal 346; sentient 341
axiom 15, 35, 379; arithmetical 17;
Euclidian 53; of choice 26; of
constructibility 31; set 17; of
infinity 399
axiomatization, of reals 19; of set
theory 20–22; standard 23–4, 35
Ayer, A.J. 194, 199–200, 202, 206–7,
209, 379–80
Babbie, E. 267
Bacon, F. 239, 250, 258–9, 380
Barthez, P.J. 324, 329, 380
Bayesian probability 380
Beer, A. 350
Begriffsschrift 13–14
behaviour 302–4, 306–9, 318–21,
345–7, 355, 357–60; animal 344;
animal versus human 333, 338,
345, 350; automatic 332, 334;
caused 352; concept-driven 362;
conscious/ unconscious 338, 342;
continuum of purposive 354;
creative 319; discontinuity of
353–4; explanation of 354;
habitual 341; human 343, 356,
362; intelligent 321; intentional
356; laws of 361; mental cause of
327; mere 365; molar or molecular
349; objective 341; of the child
363; pain 365; primitive
expressive 364–5; primitive
interactive 361; purposive 303–4,
331–3, 339, 342, 344–5, 348–54;
purposive reflexive 321; reflexive
318–19; self-regulating 325; social
270–1; stamped-in 349;
voluntary/involuntary 346, 352,
356, 360
behavioural conditioning 3 08
behavioural science see
behaviourism
behaviourism 205, 277, 280, 284, 315,
320, 331, 347, 350–2, 361, 380;
logical 349
belief 352, 355–60, 366; dynamics
430; grounds of 102; revision,
theory of 37; pragmatic
conception of 97–8
Bell inequality 216, 227–8, 380
Belnap, N. 33
Benacerraf, P. 101–3
Bergson, H. 302, 380–1
Berkeley, G. 381
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INDEX
Bernard, C. 322, 325–6, 328–9, 351,
381
Bernays, P. 19, 83–4, 104
Bernoulli, J. 268–9, 381
Berzelius, J.J. 326, 381
Bessel, F.W. 53
Bethe, A.T.J. 350
Beweissystem 95–6
Bigelow, J. 303, 352–3
biochemistry 327
biological species 305
biology 215, 300, 323–4, 327, 333
bivalence 430
body 316, 318, 324, 334–5
Bohr’s principles see
complementarity, correspondence
Bohr’s theory 216, 381
Bohr, N. 222, 381
Bois-Reymond, E., Du 325, 328–31, 390
Boltzmann constant 296, 382
Boltzmann, L. 270, 296–7, 381–2
Bolyai, J. 12, 50, 53–4, 382
Boole, G. 10–14, 50, 55, 382
Boolean algebra II, 430
Boring, E.G. 340–1, 382
Born, M. 242–3, 382
Boscovich, R.J. 225–6
Bostock, D. 89
Bournoulli, J. 175
Boyle, R. 230, 382
Bradley, F.H. 206–7, 382
brain 326–7, 331–2, 338
Bridgman, P.W. 202
Brillouin, L. 299, 301
Broca, A. 326
Brodie hypothesis 326
Brouwer, L.E.J. 16, 18–19, 54, 71–8,
81, 91, 93–4, 382
Brücke, E. von 325
Bruno, G. 238, 382
Büchner, L. 325, 327, 382
Buckle, H.T. 270
Burali-Forti, C. 17
Bush, V. 293
Cabanis, P.J.G. 327, 383
calculus 225, 251, 301, 383, 430; logical
23, 436–7; predicate 14, 23, 415, 417;
propositional 14, 23–4, 417, 440
Cannon, W. 292
Cantor’s continuum problem 16–17
Cantor’s theorem 25, 431
Cantor, G. 12, 15, 21
cardinality 431
cargo cults 244
Carnap, R. 125, 175, 183, 186, 193–5,
203–6, 208–9, 241, 383
Carpenter, W. 340
Cartesian doubt 383
category theory 431
caterpillar 343, 347–8, 363
Cauchy, L. 12
causal nexus 360
causal-explanatory framework
355–7
causality 102, 175, 217, 227, 268,
275–6, 279–83, 328, 330, 346, 348,
351, 383; weak 267
cause 267–8, 275–6, 320, 329, 333,
342, 383–4, 360; hidden 354, 356,
364–5; mapping onto effect 355;
mental 327, 346, 356, 359, 366;
reacting to 363–4
cerebral cortex 350
certainty 384
ceteris paribus 384
Chain of Being 316–18, 321–2, 332–4,
337–8, 340–1, 343–4, 346, 348, 350,
352, 354, 366, 384
chance 279, 384
channel 297–9, 308, 384; cascade of
298, 308
charge 217, 384
chemistry 214–15, 230, 327, 384–5
child 354–65
choice 356
Church’s theorem 28–9,
431
Church’s thesis see Church-Turing
thesis
Church, A. 16, 28
Church-Turing thesis 31, 431
circular definition/reasoning
385
Clarke, S. 217, 221, 385
classes 137–8
Clausius, R.J.E. 295–6, 385
446

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Clausius-Maxwell theory 216
closed sentence 431
Cogito 317, 385
cognition 316, 327, 333, 352, 385;
Cartesian picture of 3 54
cognitive activity 312–13
cognitivism 298, 312, 315, 331, 354–5,
361, 385
Cohen, P. 25
colour 179–81
common sense 143
communication 302
communication and control systems
292–3
communication channel see channel
communication theory see
information theory
compactness theorem 25, 431
comparative primatology 361
complementarity 232, 386
completeness 431
complexion 296
complexity; of ideal proofs 87;
verificational and inventional 87
comprehension 62, 67
computability 9, 28, 31, 431
computation, theory of see
computationalism
computationalism 25, 301, 312,
315, 386
computer 293, 297, 312; modelling
301, 386; program 353
Comte, A. 270, 386
concept 2, 60–2, 67, 131–4, 267, 310–
11, 355, 363, 386; acquisition 61;
analysis 216–17; and object 62; as
function 132, 134; cognitive 343;
criteria for 363; evidence of versus
criterion for 362; extension 60,
137; formation 362; grasping 134;
of cause 364; of concept 361; of
false belief 359; of number 326; of
person 362–3; of pretence 362–3;
possessing 355; primitive use of
psychological 364; psychological
343, 363, 365; volitional 340
conceptual relations 363
conceptualism 386
conclusion 431
conditioning 306; experience 345
confirmation theory 9, 35, 37, 251–3,
386, 431–2
connectionism 312–13, 354
connectionist/computational
paradigm 386–7
connective 432
consciousness 316, 318, 326, 333,
340–3, 347, 352; an emergent
property 341, 346, 353;
coextensive with nervous
system 339; divisibility of 342;
epiphenomenal 353; state of 346;
threshold of 338
consequence 276
conservation, laws of 387; of energy
326, 330
consistency 18, 432; of geometry 19
constant 127; logical 65–6, 81, 184–5,
437
construal 226–7
construction project 183
construction theory 362
construction thesis 157, 160–1, 173,
179
constructivism 78, 105, 387, 432
containment relation 51–2
context principle 60, 141–2
contingency 161; of reinforcement
307
contingent truth see truth,
necessary/contingent
continuity 348; in nature, laws of
176; sentient 348
continuity principle 106
continuum hypothesis 26, 432
continuum, mechanist versus
psychic 349; picture see Chain of
Being
contradiction 161, 204
control 351
control engineering 292, 301, 387
conventionalism 387
Cook’s theorem 432
Cook, S. 31
Copernicus, N. 250, 387
Copleston, F.C. 199
copula 129
corpuscle 230
447

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correlation 281, 387–8
correlation coefficient 271, 388
correspondence 198, 232, 388
counter example 144
counterfactual 432
counting problem 164
covariance/covariation 388
covering law 267, 388
Crooke, W. 248
Cusa, N. de 218–19, 221–2
Cusan transformation 219–20
cybernetics 292–313, 330, 351, 353,
388; and physical sciences 301;
interdisciplinary character 300–1;
more philosophy than science
302; proto 331
Darwin, C. 326, 331, 338, 348, 388
Darwinian revolution 341, 345
data 279, 293
decidability 246
decision 356, 358; problem 432;
procedure 24, 28, 432; theory 9,
35, 38, 432–3
Dedekind, J.W.R. 12, 21, 54–5, 88,
103, 388
deducibility 433
deduction 200, 388–9, 433; theorem
433
deductive-nomological model (D-N)
266–84, 389; classical 271;
demands by 272; failure of 278;
see also covering law
definition, by abstraction 135–6;
logical 144; ostensive 198; verbal
198
denotation/connotation 389
denumerable 433
derivation, formal system of 14
Descartes, R. 71, 74, 195, 232, 315–66,
389
description, 176–7, 360; theory of 389
desire 355–61, 365–6
detachment 433
determinacy-from-indeterminacy 269
determinism 267–8, 312, 336, 389–90
diagonal argument 433
discontinuity 327
discovery 356
discriminable circumstance 308
disposition 229–30
dog 345–6, 365
Donagan, A. 272–3
Dreyfus, H. 294
drogulus 199
dualism/monism 312, 315, 320, 324,
327, 334, 342, 390
Duhem, P.M.M. 97, 177, 223, 390
Dummett, M. 93–5, 141–5
Durkheim, E. 269–71, 273–4, 390
ecological fallacy 271
ecologism 222
ecosystem 306
Eddington, A.S. 390
effector 390
efficiency 309
effort 356
Einstein, A. 106, 220–1, 238, 242–3,
247, 255, 258, 390–1
electromagnetic aether 219–20
electromagnetism 219–20, 391
eliminativism 354
emotivism 194, 391
empirical evidence 248
empiricism 194, 207, 391; logical
88–9, 97, 195, 205, 404
energy 221, 299, 301; productive 299
enlightenment 316
entailment 9, 35, 171, 173, 201, 433
entertainment 239
entropy/negentropy 295–302, 304,
306, 312, 391–2; flexibility 306;
statistical basis of 296
enumerable 433
environment 222–3, 282, 294–5,
300–1, 303–10, 325, 328, 334, 349,
351, 353; perceptual 309
environmental change 305
epiphenomenalism 342, 392
epistemic co-operation 78
epistemic distance 77
epistemic individualism 77
epistemic modelling 9, 3 5
epistemological asymmetry 54, 319
epistemology 9, 172, 178, 221–2,
235–7, 279, 317, 392; and objects
103; empiricist 55, 79, 88, 97–9;
448

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INDEX
geometry and arithmetic
symmetrical 54; intuitionist 91;
Kantian 78–9, 81; mathematical
50–1, 76, 89, 102, 106–7;
mathematical and of natural
science merged 98; see also
knowledge
EPR experiment 216, 392
equilibrium 304, 322–3, 325; state of
328–9, 352
equinumerosity 137
equivalence 133; classes 136, 138–40;
relation 136–7
equivocation 298, 392
esoteric/exoteric 392
essence/essentialism 245, 392–3
ethics 157, 184, 186, 194, 207, 393
ethnomethodology 393
Euclid 15, 53, 106, 173, 215, 393
event 267–8, 276–8, 297–8, 319, 355;
causal 357; mental 319
evidence, finitary 84; paradox of
perfect 254
evolution 308
excitation 344
existence claims 74, 76; knowledge
of 76–7
expectation 276
experience 178, 183, 200–1, 203–5,
207, 226, 311, 336, 347; elimination
of 203–5
experiment 224, 226, 364
experimentalism 327
explanandum/explanans 266–7, 273,
279; see also deductive—
nomological model
explanation, form of scientific 284;
grammatical 360; teleological 351;
probabilistic causal 284;
procedural 267, 284, 416; see also
deductive-nomological model
explanatory point 271
expression 357
extension/intension 137, 393
fact 157, 159–60, 164–7, 182, 184, 259
Fage-Townsend experiments 224
fallacy 393–4, 434
fallibilism 224, 394
falsity 169
family resemblance 394
Faraday, M. 226–7, 394
Farr, S. 335
feedback, positive/negative 292,
294–5, 300–9, 351–2, 394;
heterotelic 295
Feferman, S. 84–5
Feys, R. 35
Fichte, J. 75–6
fideism 394
field 394; magnetic 225
Field, H. 89–93, 98, 102
finitary method 434
finite see infinite/finite
finitism 54, 77–8, 394
Fisher, R.A. 276, 279
fluid motion 224
force 217, 231, 394; physicochemical
329; vital see vital force or
phenomenon
form see shape
formal 394
formal/material mode of discourse
395
formalism 27, 56, 76, 81–2, 84–88,
215, 227, 395, 434
formalist school 19
forms of life 178, 258
formula 434
Fraenkel, A. 21
frame of reference 219
framework, Cartesian 332;
intellectual 258
Frêchet, M. 135
Frege, G. 9–10, 13–15, 18, 23, 50,
55–6, 58–65, 67–71, 88–90, 93,
103–5, 107, 124–49, 167–9, 171,
174, 395
Friedman, H. 10, 31, 85
Fritsch, A. 326
frog 308, 321, 341, 343–6
function 127–31, 135, 162, 251, 395,
434; and argument 14, 17;
cognitive 309–11; distinction
from objects 131; fundamental
30; general recursive 28–30, 435;
logical 55; motor 326; primitive
recursive 30, 439–40;
449

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probabilistic 312; prepositional
67; recursive 440; Turing
computable 29; zero 30
functionalism 395
future contingents, problem of 434–5
Galen, 32
Galilei, G. 219, 229, 238, 248, 251,
316, 395
Galileian relativity 219
Galton, F. 270, 279
game theory 9, 35, 38, 435
Garfinkel, H. 280–1, 395
Gassendi, P. 317, 319, 395
Gauss, K.F. 12, 50, 53, 71, 395–6
gaze 365
Gedankenexperiment 364
genetic difference 280–1
genetic endowment/pool 305
Gentzen’s consistency proof 435
Gentzen, G. 28, 84
genus/species 396
geometry, arithmetization of 71;
asymmetry with arithmetic 53–4,
56–7, 64, 70–1; Euclidian 52, 215, 396;
non-Euclidean 12, 15, 50, 55–6, 64,
70–1, 105–6, 396; necessary 105–6;
synthetic a priori 71
geophysics 215
George, F.H. 311
gesture 3 54, 365
ghost in the machine 341
Gigerenzer, G. 269–70
goal 332, 351, 353, 356
God 178, 184, 206–7, 238, 240, 257–8;
ontological proof 257–8
Gödel numbering 26, 435
Gödel’s completeness theorem 435
Gödel’s incompleteness theorems 19,
25–7, 83–4, 107, 435
Gödel, K. 10, 16, 25–7, 83–4, 99–101,
107, 246, 396
Goethe, J.W. von 75
Goltz, F. 344–5, 347
Goodings, D. 226–7
governor 293
grammar 267, 276, 284; logical 343,
365; of agency and intentionality
358; rule of 358, 362
grammatical continuum 364
grammatical form 101
Grassmann, H.G. 12
gravity 231, 251, 329
Green, G. 340
Gunderson, K. 311
habit 357
Hall, M. 338–9, 342
halting problem 43 5
Hamilton, W. 11
Hamilton, W.R. 12
Harré, R. 274, 396
Hartley, D. 293, 297, 335–8, 396
Harvey, W. 323–4
Hausdorff, F. 135
heart 323–4
heat 322–31; laws of 330; location
and generation of 325; as
metabolic activity 330; theory of
318, 323–4
Heidegger, M. 206
Heider, F. 320, 396
Heisenberg, W. 226
heliotropism 347–8
Hellmann, G. 102
Helmholtz, H.L.F. von 325–6, 330–1,
396
Hempel’s paradox 397
Hempel, C.G. 200, 251–2, 268, 272–3,
396–7
Henn, V. 351
heritability 280–1, 284
Herrick, C.J. 340–1
Hertz, H.R. 226
heuristic 255, 397
Heyting, A. 16, 23, 32–3, 93–4
hidden variable theory 227–8
Hilbert space 216, 397
Hilbert’s program 397
Hilbert, D. 16–19, 23, 25–7, 54, 56,
76–88, 104–7, 397
history of ideas 322; of psychological
ideas 366
Hodes, H. 89–90
Hodgson, P.E. 226
Homans, G.C. 267, 397
homeomorph 223
450

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homeostasis 295, 300, 304–5, 309,
326, 397
homme moyen, l’ 269–70
Hooke, R. 316, 397–8
Hull, C. 351
humankind 223, 315–22, 325, 333–4,
338, 341, 343, 345–6, 348, 353
Hume, D. 88, 237, 302, 398
Husserl, E. 142, 148
Huxley, T.H. 341, 346, 348, 398
hypothesis 361, 398;
inductive 352;
null 276, 280, 398
hypothetical 171
iatrochemistry/iatrophysics 334,
398
idea 196, 229, 336; attitude to 169
ideal methods 79–80
ideal/idealism 398
identity 15, 185
ignorabimus 16, 328–9, 331
impossibility 161
in situ 399
indeterminacy 227
indifference, principle of 219
individual 271, 310–11, 317, 319;
domain of 67, 68
individuation 398–9
induction 9, 250–1, 357, 388–9, 363,
435; transfinite 28; problem of
222, 251
inductive strength 436
inductive-statistical model (I-S) 268,
272–6
inductivism 224, 249–50, 399
ineffable 185
infant see child
inference 2, 86, 360, 399; analytic 63;
causal 364; conclusive/monotonic
and ampliative/non-monotonic 9;
deductive 173; formal system of
14; laws of 174; logical 73–4;
mathematical 62, 64, 72–3;
preconscious 355; preconscious
causal 364; prelinguistic causal
363; rule 35, 436
infinite forces 226
infinite/finite 399
information 297–9, 301–2, 307–10;
management 302; processing 298,
301, 307–9, 312, 354
information theory 293, 298–9, 301,
313, 325, 399–400
input/output 297–8, 307
insight 336
instantiation theory 251–3, 400
instinct 344
instrumentalism 249–50, 400
intelligence 28, 282; quotient (IQ)
280–1
intention 320, 326, 332, 343, 348,
353–61, 365–6
inter alia 400
interpretation 436
introspection/introspectionism
134–5, 315, 400
intuition 64, 73, 77, 100, 134–5, 138,
143–4, 251, 400; a priori of space
and/or time 51–4, 56, 58, 71, 78;
in geometry 57; intellectual 75;
mathematical 99; mental
mathematical 19; mystical 207;
primordial, of time 71; spatial or
quasi-spatial 76, 78
intuitionism 19, 54, 56, 70–7, 93–7,
107, 401, 436; post-Brouwerian 93
invariance 401
ipso facto 401
isomorphism 102, 104, 401
James, W. 347, 401
Jennings, H.S. 320–1, 349
Jesus Christ 244
Jevons, W.S. 10
joint attention 361, 365
joint negation 161–3, 167, 172, 179,
184–5
Jourdain, P.E.B. 125, 145
judgement 128, 144, 168–71, 320,
363; a priori 360; analytic/
synthetic 51–2, 97; defeasible 344;
judgeable content 138;
mathematical 81
Kant, I. 50–60, 62, 67, 69–76, 78–81,
86, 88, 90–1, 97, 100, 105–7, 135,
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INDEX
138, 143, 146, 171, 208, 237, 258,
401
Keat, R.N. 272
Kepler, J. 401
Keynes, J.M. 175, 401
Kitcher, P. 99
knowledge 205, 207, 236, 363–4;
analytical source of 147;
arithmetical 147; by acquaintance
and description 376;
communitarian conception of 77;
empirical 90; first-person 3 59; is
what? 94–5; logical 90–1;
mathematical 147; of being 75; of
characteristics of visual space 72;
of existence 75; of nature 328; of
self 75; origins of causal 363; pre-
theoretical/theoretical 365;
sensory versus/or a priori 58, 88;
sources of 58; synthetic 145; third-
person 359; see also epistemology
Kolmogorov, A. 37
Koyré school 258, 401–2
Kreisel, G. 84–5
Kripke, S. 35
Kronecker, L. 71, 78, 402
Kuhn, T. 236, 238, 249, 255,
258, 402
Kutschera, F.V. 127
lambda calculus 28–9, 436
Lange, C.G. 402
Langford, C.H. 35
language 128–9, 139–40, 157–65, 176,
178, 181, 184–5, 195–6, 200, 203,
310, 360; ability to speak 316, 359,
365; as picture of the world 142;
distinction from reality 198;
division 143; entrance into 357;
first-order 434; formal 434;
higher-order 435; hierarchy of
languages 185; is public 311;
logical analysis of 148;
mathematical 73, 75;
mathematical use of 143; natural/
artificial 408; object 186, 438;
philosophy of 141, 402; second-
order 441; symbolic 13; thing 205;
use 143, 178
language game 96, 139, 208, 358,
363–4, 402
Laplace, P.S. 175, 402
learning 175, 178, 306–7, 309, 340,
356, 360
least action, law of 176, 402
Leibniz’s law 403
Leibniz, G.W.von 12, 59, 63–4, 88,
144, 217, 221, 302, 335, 402
Lévi-Strauss, C. 245, 403
Lewes, G.H. 341, 345–6, 403
Lewin, K. 292
Lewis, C.I. 23, 35
lexico-grammatical distinction 344
Liebig, J. von 322, 325–6, 328–30, 403
life force see vital force or
phenomenon
life/matter problem 322, 324, 328, 334
linguistic ability 365
linguistic community 310–11
linguistic convention 176–7
literature 137
Lobachevski, N. 12, 50, 54, 403
Locke, J. 195–6, 204–5, 207, 229, 250,
302, 317, 403
Loeb, J. 343, 347–50, 363
logarithm 403
logic 168, 184, 196, 225, 245, 403–4,
436, 394; algebra of 10; ampliative
arguments 37; applied 37;
application of 179; Aristotelian 32,
129–30; Boolean 130; classical 32–
5, 80–1, 431; combinatory 34, 431;
completeness of 25; consequence
relation 33; constants in 23;
constructive 25; counterfactual 36;
deductive 433; default 37, 433;
definitions for arithmetical terms
14; deontic 433; development of
50, 55; epistemic 35, 434; erotetic
434; expansion of 32–8; first-
order 24–6, 32, 434; first system of
126; formal 36, 434; foundations of
16, 157; free 34, 434; functional
434; fuzzy 36, 435; higher-order
435; imperative 36, 43 5;
impoverished state of 69;
inductive 436; informal 9, 19, 36,
436; interrogative 436;
452

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intuitionistic 94, 436; laws of 66,
173–4, 184–5; many-valued 23, 34,
437; mathematical 292, 301, 405,
437; modal 23, 407, 438; modern
124, 126–32; multi-valued 438;
mathematization of 12; modal
extension to 35; multigrade
connective in 36; non-monotonic
37, 438; not psychological 171; of
existence 93–4; of knowledge
93–4; of terms 128; paraconsistent
32–3, 439; philosophy of 9–49;
plurality, pleonotetic or plurative
36, 439; predicate 35–6, 129, 439;
preference 36, 439; principles of 19;
propositional 24, 28, 3 5–6, 440;
quantum 34, 440; relation between
premisses and conclusion 9;
relevance 32–3, 441; second-order/
higher-order 24, 36, 441; sentential
441; status of physical properties
222; study of formal systems 9;
systems 24; symbolic 105, 442;
tense/temporal 36, 442; unsolved
problems 16–7
logical atomism 404
logical fiction 331
logical form 96, 101, 164, 437
logical operators 80, 128–9, 411
logical paradox 437
logical picture 133
logical positivism 88, 107, 183, 186,
193–210, 301, 404, 415
logical relation 173–4
logicism 54, 56–70, 73, 88–93,
124, 404, 437; epistemological 90;
metaphysical 93; methodological
93; scope of 67; second-
generation 92
logico-grammatical distinction 352
Lorentz transformation 219–20,
226, 404
Lotze, R.H. 124, 339–41, 343–4,
404
Löwenheim, L. 21
Löwenheim-Skolem theorems 25,
437
Lucas, J.R. 226
Lucretius 214, 404–5
Lukasiewicz, J. 23, 34, 129
Lundberg, G.A. 267
McCulloch, W. 292, 311
McGuiness, B.F. 157
Mach, E. 223, 231–2, 405
machine 335, 338, 341, 348, 351, 354
MacKay, D.M. 311
Maclaurin’s paradox 225
macro-level regularity 270
macrostate 296–7
Maddy, P. 102
magic 239, 241, 243–5
Maimonides 244, 405
manipulability 222
mass 217, 230–2, 405
material content 437
material implication 437; paradoxes
of 33, 437
materialism 311–12, 315, 321, 326,
332, 405; eliminative 352;
physical or descriptive 325;
reductionist 325; scientific 325,
327–9, 340; vital 325
mathematical practice 143
mathematics 1, 196, 225; and/of
physics 215, 226; as a game 81,
96; as convention 96; auxilliary
215; classical 79, 85; complete
formalization of 27; definition of
mathematical sequence 14;
elementary arithmetical parts 99;
formalist 50; foundational issues
in 16; ideal 81, 84, 6; immune to
empirical revision; induction and
verification 100–1; intuitionist 50,
94–5; judgements synthetic 52, 55;
knowledge is logical 90; logicism
27; logicist 50; logicization of 12,
55, 65, 69; merged with natural
science 99; needed for cognitive
processing 93; new axioms in 100;
philosophy of 9–10, 53, 56, 88,
124, 405; place of logical
reasoning in 91; pure 55, 68;
science of most general truths
66–7; refutation of intuition in 69;
representational 216; reverse 85,
87; rooted in rational agents 92;
453

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spatial or quasi-spatial intuition
in foundation of 76; transforms
logic 9; trend to empiricism 107;
unsolved problems 16–17
matrix theory 226, 405–6
matter 231, 322, 324
Maxwell’s demon 299
Maxwell, J.C. 219, 269–70, 351, 406
meaning 2, 145, 168, 195–202, 310,
360; is use 94; of life 184
mechanics 219–20, 226, 232, 330,
334; laws of 219; Newtonian
176–7, 185, 225–6, 230, 409–10;
of unconscious behaviour 342;
physics is 229; quantum 216,
226–7, 418; wave 226, 429
mechanism 237, 293, 295, 300, 303,
315–66, 406; cerebral 366; control
330; error-correcting 303;
heliotropic 343; homeostatic 330,
349, 351; information-processing
332; neural 341;
neurophysiological 353; post-
computational 322, 335, 353–4
mechanist quadrumvirate 325, 347
mechanist-vitalist debate 315–66;
demise of 329
Meinong, A.M. 167–9, 406
memory 326; associative 347–8
mental construct 320, 355
mental states 169, 345–6, 359
mereology 36, 438
Mersenne, M. 317, 406
Merton, R.K. 244, 271
metabolism 300
metalanguage 19, 185–6, 406, 438
metalogic 22, 24, 438
metamathematics 438; arithmetization
of 83; predicates 26
metaphysics 9, 186, 193, 199–200,
206–8, 230, 235, 237, 243–4, 257–8,
268, 322–3, 328, 347, 407
metatheorems 25, 438
metatheory 438
methodology 235–7, 283, 326–7, 407
Mettrie, J.O.de la 317, 327, 402
Michelson, A.A. 219, 221
micro-level unpredictability 270, 297
microstate 296
microstructure 296–7
Mill, J.S. 88, 195, 340, 407
mind 51, 70, 94, 169, 171, 196, 317,
320, 322, 332–3, 338, 343, 346,
355, 364–5, 407
mind’s eye 317
mind/body problem 323–5, 329, 333,
350, 353, 407
Minkowsky manifold 220
Minkowsky, H. 220
Minsky, M. 294
mistakes 146–7
model 225, 239, 266–7, 274, 330, 354,
364, 438; in logic 225; quasi-causal
267; of reality 353; of the world
223–4
model making 364
model theory 22, 364, 438
modus ponens 14, 184, 407, 438
modus tollens 407
Moleschott, J. 325, 327, 408
momentum 217, 221, 408
monism 408
monkey trial 243
Monro, A. 335
Moore, G.E. 178, 205, 408
morality 209–10, 357, 408
Morgan, A.de 10–11, 55, 389
Morgenstern, O. 292
Morley, E.W. 219, 221
morphology 305, 408
Morse-Kelly class theory 32
Moses 244
movement see action
Müller, J.P. 322, 408
multiple regression 408
mysticism 184, 186, 207, 408
name 126, 157–9, 165, 170,
179, 181–3, 185, 196;
proper 137, 404;
simple 179
natural selection 305–7, 309
nature 239, 330; laws of 176–9,
218–21, 324–5, 387
necessity 161
neo-Cartesianism 341
neo-pragmatism 224
454

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nervous system 293, 298, 303, 308, 330,
332, 336, 337, 339, 350; autonomic
340; efferent/afferent 390
Neumann, J.von 21, 292–3, 428
Neurath, O. 195, 203–4, 409
neurological imprinting 340
neurology 303
neurophysiology 292, 301, 326,
347, 353
neuropsychology 354, 409
neutral monism 312, 409
Newell, A. 336
Newton, I. 230, 232, 258, 316,
324–5, 337, 409
Newtonian matter theory 216
niche 306, 308
nihilism 410
nomological 410
nonsense 169–70, 172, 185, 360
normal curve 270
normal distribution 280
normative 410
NP-complete 438
number 104, 134–5, 137–8, 175,
410; as sets 137; complex 12;
concept 60–2, 138; definition of
132–3; finitary number theory
100, 104; ontological
characteristics 103; reference of,
143; science of 104; zero 133–4,
144; see also arithmetic
number theory, elementary 26, 391;
predicates 26
Nyquist, H. 293, 297
object 79, 103, 131, 135, 141,
158–60, 165, 167, 169–70, 178–83,
185, 196, 356; constitution of 143;
logical 60–1, 64; of direct
acquaintance 178; properties/
features of 180–2; quasi-concrete
104
Objective 167, 169–70
objective 410
objectivity 77
observation 279, 361, 364; statements
203
observer 318–19
Occam’s/Ockham’s razor 410
Ogden, C.K. 157
Olbers, H.W.M. 53
ontological commitment 168
ontology/ontological 169–70, 185,
221–3, 226, 269, 357, 410
opacity and transparency,
referential 410–11
operationism 202, 411
operator see logical operator
option, possible, preferred,
rule-ordered 278
order from disorder principle
269–70, 411
ordinary language philosophy 411
organism 293, 295, 300–1, 305, 307–10,
325, 343, 350, 353; genetic structure
of 304–5
organizational theory 302, 412
orientalism 412
oscillator 412
outcome 276–8
Ozanam, J. 236
ω-completeness 438
ω-consistency 26, 438
ω-particle 228
Papert, S. 294
paradigm 412; revolution 354
paradox 412, 439; distinction
between set-theoretic and
semantic 20–1
paramorph 223
parapsychology 247, 249, 412
pari passu 412
Parsons, C. 98–9, 104
Pascal, B. 302, 412
Passmore, J. 193
pattern formation 309
Patzig, G. 129–30
Pavlov, I.P. 349–50, 412–13
Peano’s postulates 439
Peano, G. 12, 17, 20, 26, 50, 55, 65,
84, 413
Pears, D.F 157
Pearson chi-square 413
Pearson, K. 279
Peirce, C.S. 10, 13, 50, 55, 65, 413
percept 310
455

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perceptible attributes 229
perception 221, 320, 326, 333, 344,
356; inner 147; theory of 320
perceptual pattern 305, 307–9; hard-
wired 308
Perrault, C. 335
person 355
Pflüger, E. 339–41, 343–4
Pflüger-Lotze debate 339–41, 344
phenomenalism 413
phenomenology 346, 413
phenomenon 232, 413–14;
behavioural 357; mental 194, 357,
365–6; physical 357;
physicochemical 330; vital see
vital force or phenomenon
philosophical reflection 147–8
philosophy 1, 193, 323, 340, 347;
analytic 378; development 194;
non-intuitionistic 142; of language
10, 168; of logic 9–49; of
mathematics see mathematics,
philosophy of; of mind 294, 351;
of psychology 322; of science 10,
157; of unreason 237–9; problems
in 24, 184, 194; scientific 237
photon 228, 414
physicalism 205, 414
physics 1, 177, 214–32, 366; and
philosophy 215; Aristotelian
218–19; as phenomenon 226,
228–9; classical 312; experiments
in 216; foundations of 226; gas
270; history of 225; is mechanics
229; laws of 215, 219, 334;
methodology of 214; nature of
223; Newtonian 217, 227, 231;
philosophy of 214–32; post-
Aristotelian 217; social 269
physiology 324–9, 331, 350
pictorial form 185
picture 170
picture theory 159, 164–6, 169, 185,
196, 414
pineal gland 332
Pitts, W.H. 311
Planck, M.C.E.L. 257, 296, 414
plane, Cartesian 218, 383; Euclidian
136
Plato 146, 166, 214, 293–4, 414
Platonism 101–2, 168, 317, 414–15
pluralism 415
Poincaré, J.H. 20, 72–4, 91–2, 94, 415
Polanyi, M. 249
Polish notation 439
Pollock, J.L. 275
Popper, K.R. 224, 232, 238, 247,
252–5, 415
population 306
positivism 224, 269
possible outcomes 278
possible worlds 35, 159–61, 182–3
post hoc 415
Post, E. 28
post-realism 224
pragmatic realism 222
pragmatism/neo-pragmatism 415
praxis 415
preconception, a priori 333
preconscious 361;selection 336
predicate 439
prediction 355, 357–9, 361
premiss 439
presupposition 415–16
prima facie 416
primitive basis 439
primitive lore 240–1
principio vitalis see vitalism
private language argument 205, 416
privileged access 356, 359
probabilistic causation 267, 271–2,
274, 276, 278
probability 174–6, 251, 253–4, 268,
274–5, 296–8, 313, 416, 440;
a priori 296–7;
conditional 268, 297–8, 313;
paradox of 254
probability theory 9, 35, 37, 253,
266–84, 440; classical 268
problem, conceptual versus
empirical 323, 328; empirical
versus philosophical 322, 327; of
other minds 416
process/processing 298, 300, 303;
biological 325; cognitive 305,
312, 344; continuity of
psychological 320; mental 320–1,
326, 346, 361; neural 331; non-
456

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verbal 320; organic versus
inorganic 329–30;
physical 366; psychic 325–6, 328,
331, 350, 366; psychological 320,
353–4
productivity, epistemic 64
Promethean madness 238, 240
proof 2, 72, 440; canonical 59–60;
consistency 84–5; finitary
consistency 27; finitary, of real-
ideal 87; impossibility 15;
mathematical 15; nature of 15;
real 79; of standard theorems 86;
theory 22
property 217, 232, 274, 281, 311;
emergent 341; possible 274–5
proposition 131, 157, 160–76, 184–5,
197–203, 222, 270, 379, 416–17; a
priori/a posteriori 51;
elementary 157–63, 165–7, 172–6,
179, 181, 183–4, 200–1, 203, 391;
empirical 359, 365; experiential
203; explanatory 274; false 166–7,
171; grammatical 358–9, 363, 365;
ideal 86; meaning is method of
verification 196; meaningless
196–7; pseudo 185; real versus
ideal 79–80; type of 65
propositional attitudes 169
protocol statement 203–4, 417
psychic control 339
psychic directedness 342
psychological ascription, grounds
for 365
psychological verbs/concept words
360; use of 365
psychology 1, 168, 292, 208, 318–19,
323, 332, 347–9, 354, 366;
comparative 345; developmental
361; foundations of 321, 325;
history of 319, 340; of animal
behaviour 347; philosophy of 315
psychophysical parallelism 366
Ptolemy, C. 215, 417
purpose 352, 356
Putnam, H. 89–90, 97, 99
quality, primary/secondary 229–31;
absolute 231
quantification, theory of 14, 440;
universal/existential 14, 162,
417–18
quantifier 23, 126, 440; existential
434; scope of 441; universal 443
quantum electrodynamics 228, 418
quantum field theory 216, 228, 418
quantum theory 269
quantum/quanta 418
quasi-causal 267
Quetelet, L.A.J. 269–70, 418
Quine, W.V. 10, 13, 16, 89–90, 97–9,
101, 107, 418
radar 293
Ramsey, F.P. 20, 418–19
randomness 419
rate 270
ratio 232
rationalism 237
rationality, theory of practical 38
realism/anti-realism 184, 221–4,
250, 419
reality 159, 181, 198, 200, 203, 223,
353; analogue of 225
reason 64, 316; faculty of 56, 70, 106;
principle of sufficient 59, 176–7, 425
reasonable expectation 272–3
reasoning 326; animal 317;
causal 283, 363; counterfactual
364; finitary 84–5; ideal
82, 87; logical 72; mathematical
52, 55, 73–4, 80, 91–2; political
317; probabilistic 275
reconstructive interpretation 146
recursion theory 29, 440
recursive procedure 440
reducibility 353; axiom of 419
reductionism 194, 205, 207, 210,
327, 332, 354, 419; linguistic
205; mechanist 331
reference, domain of 142–3
referent 179
reflex theory debate 331–45
reflex/reflex theory 318–19, 334,
340, 342, 344, 349–50, 353, 356,
419; action see action, reflexive;
movement 318; psychic 350;
spinal 340; unconscious 338
457

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refutation 419
regressive method 68
relationism see relativity
relative truth/relativism 419–20
relativity, special/general theories of
216–18, 220–1, 420
religion 157, 241, 243, 257;
philosophy of see theology
representation 75–6, 309, 312, 362;
internal 353–4; mental 312
requisite variety, law of 299, 301
research, agricultural 279;
explanatory 267; pseudo 259;
scientific 235–7, 242, 252, 255,
258–9
Resnik, M.D. 102
response 353; automatic 344;
conditioned 348–9, 363;
unconscious 344
Richet, C. 350
Riemann, B. 12
robotics 293, 345
Roche, J. 215
Rosenblueth, A. 292, 303, 352–3
Rosser, J.B. 26
Royce, J. 302, 420
rule 23, 256–7, 343; formation 434;
inference 35, 436; transformation
442
rule-governed activity/behaviour
96, 283
Russell’s paradox 17–21, 64, 70, 107,
130, 137–8, 420, 441
Russell, B. 10, 16–21, 26, 55–6, 62,
64–70, 72, 88–9, 93, 125, 130, 145,
157, 167–70, 172–4, 178, 195, 238,
258, 302, 312, 323, 333, 420
Ryle, G. 420
Saccheri, G. 12
Sachlage see situation
Sachs, J. 347
Sachverhalt see states of affairs
St Roberto Cardinal Bellarmino 238
satisfiability 31, 441
Satz see sentence, proposition
Saussure, F.De 421
Sayre, K. 294, 309, 311
scepticism 139, 184, 201, 222, 317,
Schelling, F. 75
scheme, cognitive 320; embodied
353; quasi-causal 267
Schlick, M. 179, 193–8, 201–2, 204,
207–9, 421
Schröder, E. 10, 13, 55, 65, 421
Schrödinger, E. 226, 250, 300, 421
Schütte, K. 84
science 178, 200, 203, 205–6, 222, 227,
266–284, 323; and culture 259; as a
whole 89; as esoteric 255–9;
concerns in 236–7; confirmation
not probability 253–4; empirical
character of 246–7; exceptional
255; foundations of 302;
interpreted 79; is public 247; is
what? 239–40, 244–5, 247; life
sciences 330; logical account of
224; needs logic and mathematics
97; new scientific era 194; normal
236, 255; not thoroughly
empirical 248; of mind 322;
natural 186, 214–15, 409;
paradigm for 331; philosophy of
177, 194, 223, 235–259, 421;
predictive success of 248–50, 255;
pseudo 242, 244; quantitative
social 269; spokespeople for 239,
241–4, 248, 251–6; relation
between evidence and hypothesis
9; system of 204; unity of 205, 207
scientific establishment 240
scientific evidence 248, 250, 256
scientific laws 201–2
scientific method 330
scientific status 248
scientific technology 238–9, 241
scientist 177; paradigm of 364
scope modifier 268
Scriptures 240–1, 243
Sedgewick, A. 340
seeing 363–4
self 75–6, 355–6
Selfridge, O. 294, 311
semantic paradox 441
semantics 10, 34, 101–2, 168, 179,
183, 421, 441; split 143; truth-
functional 142
semi-solipsism 319, 340
Seneca, L.A. 317
458

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sensation 178, 205, 326, 333, 336,
338–9, 342, 344; of pain 343
sensationalism 250, 422
sense 64, 163–5, 170–2, 179, 181, 185;
data 178; experience 207; odality
422; of life 186
sense and reference 62, 132, 139–41,
145, 168, 422
sentence 126, 129, 163–4, 172, 183,
185, 196–7, 245; open 439; pseudo
186; technical meaning 127
sentient principle 338
set 20, 67, 441; set of natural
numbers 11–12; hierarchy of sets
15; set of all sets 19; paradoxical
set 21; recursive 441
set theory 15, 21–22, 100, 422, 441
Shannon’s tenth theorem 299, 301
Shannon, C.E. 293, 297–8, 422
shape/form/Gestalt 78; analysis
of 55
Shelley, M. 243–4
Sherrington, C.S. 338–9, 422
showing not saying 185–6
sign 78, 128, 158, 163–4, 172, 182, 184
similarity/difference 223–4
Simon, H.A. 336
simple element 158
simpliciter 422
Simpson, S. 85–6
simultaneity 422
sine qua non 422
Sinn see sense and reference
situation 164, 166–7, 169,
176–7, 180–1
Skinner, B.F. 307, 309, 351, 423
Skolem’s paradox 25, 441–2
Skolem, T.A. 21
Skolem-Löwenheim theorems
see Löwenheim-Skolem
the orems
Sluga, H. 124
social anthropology 242, 258, 423
social causation 270–1
social group 271, 306; membership
in 305
social regularity 269
society 239
socioeconomics 292
sociology 270–1, 322, 423;
of knowledge 322; of science 246
Socrates 178, 423
solipsism 184, 321, 423
sophisticates 230
soul 316, 318, 324, 328, 334–5, 338,
343, 346
soundness 441
space-time 217–20, 423; manifold
218, 221
species evolution 300, 305–6
speech act 196
Spencer, H. 340, 348
Spinoza, B. de 312, 423
spiritualism 423–4
Stahl, G. 334–5
statement 196–204, 206,
209; empirical 196; ethical
208–9; oral 209–10; pseudo
196, 206; scientific
200–2; structure and content
204
states of affairs 79, 158–61, 164,
166–7, 172, 174–7, 179, 181–3,
185, 196, 267–8, 276; see also
propositions, elementary
statistical frequency 274
statistics 269–70, 279–283, 424; moral
270, 408
Stekeler-Weithofer, P. 142, 148
Stevenson, C.L. 209, 424
stimulus 353; action is 320; pattern
308–9; punishing and reinforcing
307; response 334, 344, 347
stochastic 424
Stove, D. 238
strict implication 441; paradoxes of
442
structuralism 102, 104 , 424
structure 299, 301, 303; sensori-
motor 343; substructure 303;
theoretico-explanatory 144–5
sub specie aeternitatis 424
subconscious 341
subject-predicate, relation 55
subjective/subjectivism 424
substance 424
substantivalists 218
substitution 442
459

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successor 442
suicide 270–1, 273–5
syllogism 184, 425
symbols 310, 354, 425; incomplete
398; primitive 440
symmetry of explanation and
prediction 271, 273
synapse 425
syntax 159, 425, 442
synthetic see analytic/synthetic
system 295–6, 306–7, 351, 353;
axiomatic 430; biological 307;
complex 302; cybernetic 312;
formal 22, 434; homeostatic 352;
logistic 437; natural deduction
438; operating 294–5, 306;
self-regulating 330; sensori-motor
349
Takeuti, G. 84
target-seeking missile 303–4
Tarski’s theorem 25
Tarski, A. 16, 426
tautology 161, 163, 174, 426, 442
taxonomy 426
technology 326–7; philosophy of 238
teleology 303–5, 337, 351, 426;
biological 304–5
The False/The True 168–9
Theatetus 426
theology 194, 243–4, 257–8
theorem 442; logical is mathematical
94; real 87
theory 267, 442; coherence 204;
displacement or elimination of
323; of computing machinery
293; of knowledge see
epistemology; of language 157;
of meaning 157, 194; of mind
355–9, 361–3; of names 148; of
theory 364; of truth 157 ; of
types 19–20, 26, 427, 443;
scientific 176, 202; semantic 142;
type of 322, 356
theory-forms 82
theory-ladenness 248, 250
thermodynamics, first and second
law of 295–6, 299, 312, 325, 426
thermostat 295, 330
thought 56, 168–9, 172, 184, 326–7;
arithmetical, geometrical 58;
breakdown of rational 57; forms
of 82; laws of 58, 82, 336;
mathematical 50, 75; nature of
351; objectively existing 60; origin
of 324
Tomasello, M. 361
toothache 205–6
transcendental 426
transparency, referential see opacity
and transparency, referential
tropism 347, 349, 353
truth 2, 59, 129, 167, 169, 172–3,
196, 199, 204, 222, 235, 241, 394;
analytical 59; arithmetical 60;
condition 160, 163–5, 168, 171,
175, 179, 184; function 23, 157,
162, 167, 176, 181, 184, 426, 442;
generalization of 66–7; grounds
102, 173–5, 184; logical 404;
mathematical 97, 120;
necessary/contingent 409;
primitive 59; table 28, 160–1,
442; value 126–7, 144, 161, 163,
166, 168, 173, 442
Turing machine 28–9, 442–3
Turing, A.M. 28, 335, 426–7; see also
Church-Turing thesis
Turing-computable 442
Umwelt see environment
uncertainty 297–8
unconscious 339, 341–2, 344
understanding 79, 134; scientific
knowledge 148; social 364–5
universals 427
unreason 237–9
Unsinn see nonsense
Urry, J.R. 272
Üküll, J.von 350
validity 427, 443; formal 32
variable 127; bound 430; free 434;
hidden variable 397
Vendler, Z. 277
verifiability, principle/criterion of
195–201, 205–7, 427–8
verifiable in principle 202
460

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verification principle see verifiability,
principle/criterion of
verificationism 193–210, 428
versimilitude 224
Vicious Circle Principle 20–1
Vienna Circle 175, 178, 193, 203, 323,
428
virtual particle 428
visual field 179–80
vital force or phenomenon 324–30,
332, 349
vitalism 315–66, 428
Vogt, C. 325, 327
volition 318–19, 326, 332–3, 337–9,
342, 346–8, 352, 428
voluntary/involuntary see volition
Wagner, S. 89, 92–3, 331
Waisman, F. 175, 179, 195, 200, 203,
428
Watson, J.B. 320–1, 350–1, 428–9
Watt, J. 293
weak/strong interaction 228, 429
Weierstrass, K. 12, 55, 429
Weithofen, S. 139
well-formed formula 443
Wellman, H.M. 355
Wells, H.G. 243–4
Weltanschauung 322, 429
Wernicke, C. 326
Weyl, H. 54, 71, 74, 76–8, 104, 429
Whewell, W. 255, 429
Whitehead, A.N. 16, 20, 26, 55, 88, 429
Whittaker, E. 242–3
Whytt, R. 337–8
Wiener, N. 292–4, 299, 300, 302–3,
309, 311–12, 352–3, 429–30
will 335–6, 338, 342, 344, 347–8
Wimmer-Perner test 362
Wittgenstein, L. 93–6, 125, 145, 148,
157–86, 195–6, 198, 205, 207, 258,
276, 358, 360, 363, 430
words 60, 144, 169, 198, 202, 204, 357
world 166–7, 169, 176–8, 182, 184–5,
222–4, 241, 312; apparatus-world
set-up 232
Wright, S. 279
Zermelo, E. 16, 18, 20
Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory (ZF) 21,
ZFC 21, 31
z particle 228
461